tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-10505912950650991652024-02-19T02:25:59.832-08:00One, Two, Three! -----------Digital PhotographyAll about Photography from the Basic to the complicated techniques, from standard to latest digital camera.
The Evolution of Camera.
Giving you nothing but the Latest from the Photography World...John Michael Acehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16447213303343013873noreply@blogger.comBlogger20125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1050591295065099165.post-64037312879368706472011-11-07T22:01:00.001-08:002011-11-07T22:01:21.637-08:00Nikon<div class="youtube-content-text"><img alt="Nikon 1
V1, J1 - The Nikon 1 is the intelligent camera you've been waiting for.
As a small and powerful interchangeable lens digital camera, it is able
to combine the best of both worlds –portability with performance.
Featuring new levels of speed, simplicity and quality, the Nikon 1 will
revolutionise the way you capture your world." src="http://iam.nikon-asia.com/images/main/video/nikon1.png" /> </div>John Michael Acehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16447213303343013873noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1050591295065099165.post-4627463551493673862011-11-04T00:46:00.000-07:002011-11-04T00:46:06.933-07:00New Canon CAmera's<div id="page_content_header" style="background-position: 100% 0%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; height: 150px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; position: relative;"><h1 class="" id="page_content_headerText" style="background-attachment: scroll; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: url(http://www.usa.canon.com/sys/images/bg/red-tab.gif); background-origin: initial; background-position: 0px 0px; background-repeat: no-repeat repeat; bottom: 20px; color: #666666; font-size: 21px; line-height: 24px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 10px; padding-left: 32px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 10px; position: absolute; width: 244px;">Digital SLR Cameras</h1></div><div class="consumer_subcategories clearfix" id="page_content" style="background-color: white; min-height: 370px; padding-bottom: 36px; padding-left: 30px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 22px;"><div class=" " id="page_content_left" style="float: left; font-size: 12px; width: 536px;"><div class="details" id="category_model_details"><form method="GET" name="compare_products_form" style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px;"><div id="compare_products_top" style="margin-bottom: 20px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 10px;"><div style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;">Select up to three products to compare their features and specifications.</div><a href="http://www.usa.canon.com/cusa/consumer/products/cameras/slr_cameras?pageKeyCode=65" style="color: #666666; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="Compare" src="http://www.usa.canon.com/sys/images/buttons/compare_now.gif" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px;" /></a></div><div class="subcategory_container" id="subcategory_container"><h3 style="background-image: url(http://www.usa.canon.com/sys/images/bg/products_list_name.gif); background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: white; font-size: 14px; height: 24px; line-height: 24px; margin-bottom: 1px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 8px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">EOS Digital SLR Cameras</h3><div class="products_list_container" style="background-image: url(http://www.usa.canon.com/sys/images/bg/products_list.gif); background-repeat: repeat no-repeat;"><div class="caption" style="padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 14px; padding-right: 40px; padding-top: 14px;">Amazing image quality and outstanding performance are just two of the many benefits photographers, from beginners to professionals, will experience with every interaction with a Canon EOS digital camera.</div><br class="Apple-interchange-newline" /><table cellspacing="0" class="products_list" style="padding-bottom: 15px; padding-left: 10px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 10px; width: 530px;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(209, 209, 209); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: center; width: 107px;" valign="top" width="20.0%"><div id="10247:0901e024800bee7d::0"><table class="product_thumbnail_details" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(209, 209, 209); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 15px; position: relative;"><tbody>
<tr><td class="name" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(209, 209, 209); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 0px; cursor: default; font-size: 11px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: center; width: 96px;"><img alt="New" class="new_product" src="http://www.usa.canon.com/sys/images/icons/new.gif" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; position: absolute;" /><a href="http://www.usa.canon.com/cusa/consumer/products/cameras/slr_cameras/eos_1d_x" style="color: #666666; font-size: 12px; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;"><div><img src="http://www.usa.canon.com/CUSA/assets/app/images/cameras/eos/EOS_1DX/profile/1dx_90x60.gif" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px;" title="EOS-1D X" /></div>EOS-1D X</a></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(209, 209, 209); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 0px; cursor: default; font-size: 11px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: center; width: 96px;"><div align="center"><table cellspacing="0" class="compare" style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; table-layout: auto; text-align: center; width: 68px;"><tbody>
<tr><td align="left" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(209, 209, 209); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 0px; cursor: default; font-size: 11px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; width: 96px;" valign="middle"><label for="productId0901e024803afc91" style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px;"><input id="productId0901e024803afc91" name="compare" style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;" type="checkbox" value="0901e024803af9fd" /></label></td><td align="left" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(209, 209, 209); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 0px; cursor: default; font-size: 11px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; width: 96px;" valign="middle"><a href="http://www.usa.canon.com/cusa/consumer/products/cameras/slr_cameras#" id="productId0901e024803afc91_Compare" style="color: #666666; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 1px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-decoration: none;">Compare</a></td></tr>
</tbody></table></div></td></tr>
<tr><td class="price" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(209, 209, 209); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 0px; cursor: default; font-size: 11px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: center; width: 96px;"><a href="http://www.usa.canon.com/cusa/consumer/products/cameras/slr_cameras/eos_1d_x" style="color: #666666; text-decoration: none;"><span style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 2px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px;"></span></a><br />
<img alt="" border="0" height="5" src="http://www.usa.canon.com/sys/images/spacer.gif" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px;" width="1" /></td></tr>
</tbody></table></div></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(209, 209, 209); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: center; width: 107px;" valign="top" width="20.0%"><div id="10247:0901e024800bee7d::0"><table class="product_thumbnail_details" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(209, 209, 209); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 15px; position: relative;"><tbody>
<tr><td class="name" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(209, 209, 209); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 0px; cursor: default; font-size: 11px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: center; width: 96px;"><a href="http://www.usa.canon.com/cusa/consumer/products/cameras/slr_cameras/eos_1ds_mark_iii" style="color: #666666; font-size: 12px; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;"><div><img src="http://www.usa.canon.com/CUSA/assets/app/images/product/Camera/1ds_markiii_cl_hr2_60x90.gif" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px;" title="EOS-1Ds Mark III" /></div>EOS-1Ds Mark III</a></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(209, 209, 209); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 0px; cursor: default; font-size: 11px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: center; width: 96px;"><div align="center"><table cellspacing="0" class="compare" style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; table-layout: auto; text-align: center; width: 68px;"><tbody>
<tr><td align="left" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(209, 209, 209); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 0px; cursor: default; font-size: 11px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; width: 96px;" valign="middle"><label for="productId0901e024800614f9" style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px;"><input id="productId0901e024800614f9" name="compare" style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;" type="checkbox" value="0901e0248003ce6d" /></label></td><td align="left" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(209, 209, 209); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 0px; cursor: default; font-size: 11px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; width: 96px;" valign="middle"><a href="http://www.usa.canon.com/cusa/consumer/products/cameras/slr_cameras#" id="productId0901e024800614f9_Compare" style="color: #666666; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 1px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-decoration: none;">Compare</a></td></tr>
</tbody></table></div></td></tr>
<tr><td class="price" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(209, 209, 209); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 0px; cursor: default; font-size: 11px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: center; width: 96px;"><a href="http://www.usa.canon.com/cusa/consumer/products/cameras/slr_cameras/eos_1ds_mark_iii" style="color: #666666; text-decoration: none;"><span style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 2px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px;">$6,999.00</span> </a><br />
<img alt="" border="0" height="5" src="http://www.usa.canon.com/sys/images/spacer.gif" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px;" width="1" /></td></tr>
</tbody></table></div></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(209, 209, 209); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: center; width: 107px;" valign="top" width="20.0%"><div id="10247:0901e024800bee7d::0"><table class="product_thumbnail_details" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(209, 209, 209); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 15px; position: relative;"><tbody>
<tr><td class="name" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(209, 209, 209); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 0px; cursor: default; font-size: 11px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: center; width: 96px;"><a href="http://www.usa.canon.com/cusa/consumer/products/cameras/slr_cameras/eos_1d_mark_iv" style="color: #666666; font-size: 12px; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;"><div><img src="http://www.usa.canon.com/CUSA/assets/app/images/product/Camera/1d_markiv_3q_90x60.gif" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px;" title="EOS-1D Mark IV" /></div>EOS-1D<br />
Mark IV</a></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(209, 209, 209); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 0px; cursor: default; font-size: 11px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: center; width: 96px;"><div align="center"><table cellspacing="0" class="compare" style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; table-layout: auto; text-align: center; width: 68px;"><tbody>
<tr><td align="left" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(209, 209, 209); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 0px; cursor: default; font-size: 11px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; width: 96px;" valign="middle"><label for="productId0901e024801524c7" style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px;"><input id="productId0901e024801524c7" name="compare" style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;" type="checkbox" value="0901e02480133b66" /></label></td><td align="left" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(209, 209, 209); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 0px; cursor: default; font-size: 11px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; width: 96px;" valign="middle"><a href="http://www.usa.canon.com/cusa/consumer/products/cameras/slr_cameras#" id="productId0901e024801524c7_Compare" style="color: #666666; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 1px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-decoration: none;">Compare</a></td></tr>
</tbody></table></div></td></tr>
<tr><td class="price" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(209, 209, 209); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 0px; cursor: default; font-size: 11px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: center; width: 96px;"><a href="http://www.usa.canon.com/cusa/consumer/products/cameras/slr_cameras/eos_1d_mark_iv" style="color: #666666; text-decoration: none;"><span style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 2px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px;">$4,999.00</span> </a><br />
<img alt="" border="0" height="5" src="http://www.usa.canon.com/sys/images/spacer.gif" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px;" width="1" /></td></tr>
</tbody></table></div></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(209, 209, 209); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: center; width: 107px;" valign="top" width="20.0%"><div id="10247:0901e024800bee7d::0"><table class="product_thumbnail_details" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(209, 209, 209); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 15px; position: relative;"><tbody>
<tr><td class="name" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(209, 209, 209); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 0px; cursor: default; font-size: 11px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: center; width: 96px;"><a href="http://www.usa.canon.com/cusa/consumer/products/cameras/slr_cameras/eos_1d_mark_iii" style="color: #666666; font-size: 12px; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;"><div><img src="http://www.usa.canon.com/CUSA/assets/app/images/product/Camera/1dmarkiii_cl1_60x90.gif" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px;" title="EOS-1D Mark III" /></div>EOS-1D Mark III</a></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(209, 209, 209); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 0px; cursor: default; font-size: 11px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: center; width: 96px;"><div align="center"><table cellspacing="0" class="compare" style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; table-layout: auto; text-align: center; width: 68px;"><tbody>
<tr><td align="left" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(209, 209, 209); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 0px; cursor: default; font-size: 11px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; width: 96px;" valign="middle"><label for="productId0901e024800614fb" style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px;"><input id="productId0901e024800614fb" name="compare" style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;" type="checkbox" value="0901e0248003d03c" /></label></td><td align="left" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(209, 209, 209); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 0px; cursor: default; font-size: 11px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; width: 96px;" valign="middle"><a href="http://www.usa.canon.com/cusa/consumer/products/cameras/slr_cameras#" id="productId0901e024800614fb_Compare" style="color: #666666; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 1px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-decoration: none;">Compare</a></td></tr>
</tbody></table></div></td></tr>
<tr><td class="price" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(209, 209, 209); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 0px; cursor: default; font-size: 11px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: center; width: 96px;"><a href="http://www.usa.canon.com/cusa/consumer/products/cameras/slr_cameras/eos_1d_mark_iii" style="color: #666666; text-decoration: none;"><span style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 2px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px;">$3,999.00</span> </a><br />
<img alt="" border="0" height="5" src="http://www.usa.canon.com/sys/images/spacer.gif" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px;" width="1" /></td></tr>
</tbody></table></div></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(209, 209, 209); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: center; width: 107px;" valign="top" width="20.0%"><div id="10247:0901e024800bee7d::0"><table class="product_thumbnail_details" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(209, 209, 209); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 15px; position: relative;"><tbody>
<tr><td class="name" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(209, 209, 209); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 0px; cursor: default; font-size: 11px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: center; width: 96px;"><a href="http://www.usa.canon.com/cusa/consumer/products/cameras/slr_cameras/eos_5d_mark_ii" style="color: #666666; font-size: 12px; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;"><div><img src="http://www.usa.canon.com/CUSA/assets/app/images/product/Camera/5d_markii_90x60.gif" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px;" title="EOS 5D Mark II" /></div>EOS 5D<br />
Mark II</a></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(209, 209, 209); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 0px; cursor: default; font-size: 11px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: center; width: 96px;"><div align="center"><table cellspacing="0" class="compare" style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; table-layout: auto; text-align: center; width: 68px;"><tbody>
<tr><td align="left" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(209, 209, 209); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 0px; cursor: default; font-size: 11px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; width: 96px;" valign="middle"><label for="productId0901e02480065fa6" style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px;"><input id="productId0901e02480065fa6" name="compare" style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;" type="checkbox" value="0901e02480041740" /></label></td><td align="left" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(209, 209, 209); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 0px; cursor: default; font-size: 11px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; width: 96px;" valign="middle"><a href="http://www.usa.canon.com/cusa/consumer/products/cameras/slr_cameras#" id="productId0901e02480065fa6_Compare" style="color: #666666; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 1px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-decoration: none;">Compare</a></td></tr>
</tbody></table></div></td></tr>
<tr><td class="price" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(209, 209, 209); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 0px; cursor: default; font-size: 11px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: center; width: 96px;"><a href="http://www.usa.canon.com/cusa/consumer/products/cameras/slr_cameras/eos_5d_mark_ii" style="color: #666666; text-decoration: none;"><span style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 2px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px;">$2,499.00</span> </a><br />
<img alt="" border="0" height="5" src="http://www.usa.canon.com/sys/images/spacer.gif" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px;" width="1" /></td></tr>
</tbody></table></div></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(209, 209, 209); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: center; width: 107px;" valign="top" width="20.0%"><div id="10247:0901e024800bee7d::0"><table class="product_thumbnail_details" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(209, 209, 209); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 15px; position: relative;"><tbody>
<tr><td class="name" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(209, 209, 209); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 0px; cursor: default; font-size: 11px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: center; width: 96px;"><a href="http://www.usa.canon.com/cusa/consumer/products/cameras/slr_cameras/eos_7d" style="color: #666666; font-size: 12px; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;"><div><img src="http://www.usa.canon.com/CUSA/assets/app/images/product/Camera/7d_3q_90x60.gif" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px;" title="EOS 7D" /></div>EOS 7D<br />
Digital</a></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(209, 209, 209); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 0px; cursor: default; font-size: 11px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: center; width: 96px;"><div align="center"><table cellspacing="0" class="compare" style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; table-layout: auto; text-align: center; width: 68px;"><tbody>
<tr><td align="left" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(209, 209, 209); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 0px; cursor: default; font-size: 11px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; width: 96px;" valign="middle"><label for="productId0901e024800a2f76" style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px;"><input id="productId0901e024800a2f76" name="compare" style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;" type="checkbox" value="0901e024800a1c25" /></label></td><td align="left" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(209, 209, 209); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 0px; cursor: default; font-size: 11px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; width: 96px;" valign="middle"><a href="http://www.usa.canon.com/cusa/consumer/products/cameras/slr_cameras#" id="productId0901e024800a2f76_Compare" style="color: #666666; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 1px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-decoration: none;">Compare</a></td></tr>
</tbody></table></div></td></tr>
<tr><td class="price" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(209, 209, 209); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 0px; cursor: default; font-size: 11px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: center; width: 96px;"><a href="http://www.usa.canon.com/cusa/consumer/products/cameras/slr_cameras/eos_7d" style="color: #666666; text-decoration: none;"><span style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 2px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px;">$1,699.00</span> </a><br />
<img alt="" border="0" height="5" src="http://www.usa.canon.com/sys/images/spacer.gif" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px;" width="1" /></td></tr>
</tbody></table></div></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(209, 209, 209); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: center; width: 107px;" valign="top" width="20.0%"><div id="10247:0901e024800bee7d::0"><table class="product_thumbnail_details" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(209, 209, 209); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 15px; position: relative;"><tbody>
<tr><td class="name" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(209, 209, 209); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 0px; cursor: default; font-size: 11px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: center; width: 96px;"><a href="http://www.usa.canon.com/cusa/consumer/products/cameras/slr_cameras/eos_60d" style="color: #666666; font-size: 12px; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;"><div><img src="http://www.usa.canon.com/CUSA/assets/app/images/cameras/eos/EOS_60D/profile/60d_3q_90x60.gif" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px;" title="EOS 60D" /></div>EOS 60D</a></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(209, 209, 209); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 0px; cursor: default; font-size: 11px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: center; width: 96px;"><div align="center"><table cellspacing="0" class="compare" style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; table-layout: auto; text-align: center; width: 68px;"><tbody>
<tr><td align="left" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(209, 209, 209); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 0px; cursor: default; font-size: 11px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; width: 96px;" valign="middle"><label for="productId0901e024801e42a2" style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px;"><input id="productId0901e024801e42a2" name="compare" style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;" type="checkbox" value="0901e024801e288e" /></label></td><td align="left" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(209, 209, 209); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 0px; cursor: default; font-size: 11px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; width: 96px;" valign="middle"><a href="http://www.usa.canon.com/cusa/consumer/products/cameras/slr_cameras#" id="productId0901e024801e42a2_Compare" style="color: #666666; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 1px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-decoration: none;">Compare</a></td></tr>
</tbody></table></div></td></tr>
<tr><td class="price" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(209, 209, 209); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 0px; cursor: default; font-size: 11px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: center; width: 96px;"><a href="http://www.usa.canon.com/cusa/consumer/products/cameras/slr_cameras/eos_60d" style="color: #666666; text-decoration: none;"><span style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 2px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px;">$999.99</span> </a><br />
<img alt="" border="0" height="5" src="http://www.usa.canon.com/sys/images/spacer.gif" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px;" width="1" /></td></tr>
</tbody></table></div></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(209, 209, 209); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: center; width: 107px;" valign="top" width="20.0%"><div id="10247:0901e024800bee7d::0"><table class="product_thumbnail_details" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(209, 209, 209); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 15px; position: relative;"><tbody>
<tr><td class="name" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(209, 209, 209); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 0px; cursor: default; font-size: 11px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: center; width: 96px;"><a href="http://www.usa.canon.com/cusa/consumer/products/cameras/slr_cameras/eos_50d" style="color: #666666; font-size: 12px; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;"><div><img src="http://www.usa.canon.com/CUSA/assets/app/images/product/Camera/50d_90x60.gif" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px;" title="EOS 50D" /></div>EOS 50D Digital</a></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(209, 209, 209); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 0px; cursor: default; font-size: 11px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: center; width: 96px;"><div align="center"><table cellspacing="0" class="compare" style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; table-layout: auto; text-align: center; width: 68px;"><tbody>
<tr><td align="left" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(209, 209, 209); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 0px; cursor: default; font-size: 11px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; width: 96px;" valign="middle"><label for="productId0901e0248006ffe1" style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px;"><input id="productId0901e0248006ffe1" name="compare" style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;" type="checkbox" value="0901e024800416e1" /></label></td><td align="left" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(209, 209, 209); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 0px; cursor: default; font-size: 11px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; width: 96px;" valign="middle"><a href="http://www.usa.canon.com/cusa/consumer/products/cameras/slr_cameras#" id="productId0901e0248006ffe1_Compare" style="color: #666666; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 1px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-decoration: none;">Compare</a></td></tr>
</tbody></table></div></td></tr>
<tr><td class="price" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(209, 209, 209); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 0px; cursor: default; font-size: 11px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: center; width: 96px;"><a href="http://www.usa.canon.com/cusa/consumer/products/cameras/slr_cameras/eos_50d" style="color: #666666; text-decoration: none;"><span style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 2px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px;">$1,099.00</span> </a><br />
<img alt="" border="0" height="5" src="http://www.usa.canon.com/sys/images/spacer.gif" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px;" width="1" /></td></tr>
</tbody></table></div></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(209, 209, 209); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: center; width: 107px;" valign="top" width="20.0%"><div id="10247:0901e024800bee7d::0"><table class="product_thumbnail_details" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(209, 209, 209); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 15px; position: relative;"><tbody>
<tr><td class="name" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(209, 209, 209); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 0px; cursor: default; font-size: 11px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: center; width: 96px;"><a href="http://www.usa.canon.com/cusa/consumer/products/cameras/slr_cameras/eos_rebel_t3i_18_55mm_is_ii_kit" style="color: #666666; font-size: 12px; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;"><div><img src="http://www.usa.canon.com/CUSA/assets/app/images/cameras/eos/EOS_Rebel_T3i/profile/rebelt3i_3q_90x60.gif" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px;" title="EOS Rebel T3i 18-55mm IS II Kit" /></div>EOS<br />
Rebel T3i<br />
EF-S<br />
18-55IS II Kit</a></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(209, 209, 209); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 0px; cursor: default; font-size: 11px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: center; width: 96px;"><div align="center"><table cellspacing="0" class="compare" style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; table-layout: auto; text-align: center; width: 68px;"><tbody>
<tr><td align="left" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(209, 209, 209); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 0px; cursor: default; font-size: 11px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; width: 96px;" valign="middle"><label for="productId0901e02480274b8b" style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px;"><input id="productId0901e02480274b8b" name="compare" style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;" type="checkbox" value="0901e024802744d0" /></label></td><td align="left" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(209, 209, 209); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 0px; cursor: default; font-size: 11px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; width: 96px;" valign="middle"><a href="http://www.usa.canon.com/cusa/consumer/products/cameras/slr_cameras#" id="productId0901e02480274b8b_Compare" style="color: #666666; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 1px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-decoration: none;">Compare</a></td></tr>
</tbody></table></div></td></tr>
<tr><td class="price" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(209, 209, 209); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 0px; cursor: default; font-size: 11px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: center; width: 96px;"><a href="http://www.usa.canon.com/cusa/consumer/products/cameras/slr_cameras/eos_rebel_t3i_18_55mm_is_ii_kit" style="color: #666666; text-decoration: none;"><span style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 2px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px;">$899.99</span> </a><br />
<img alt="" border="0" height="5" src="http://www.usa.canon.com/sys/images/spacer.gif" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px;" width="1" /></td></tr>
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<tr><td class="name" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(209, 209, 209); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 0px; cursor: default; font-size: 11px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: center; width: 96px;"><a href="http://www.usa.canon.com/cusa/consumer/products/cameras/slr_cameras/eos_rebel_t2i_ef_s_18_55is_ii_kit" style="color: #666666; font-size: 12px; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;"><div><img src="http://www.usa.canon.com/CUSA/assets/app/images/product/Camera/T2i_typeII/t2i_3q_90x60b.gif" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px;" title="EOS Rebel T2i EF-S 18-55IS II Kit" /></div>EOS<br />
Rebel T2i<br />
EF-S<br />
18-55IS II Kit</a></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(209, 209, 209); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 0px; cursor: default; font-size: 11px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: center; width: 96px;"><div align="center"><table cellspacing="0" class="compare" style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; table-layout: auto; text-align: center; width: 68px;"><tbody>
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<tr><td class="name" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(209, 209, 209); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 0px; cursor: default; font-size: 11px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: center; width: 96px;"><a href="http://www.usa.canon.com/cusa/consumer/products/cameras/slr_cameras/eos_rebel_t3_18_55mm_is_ii_kit" style="color: #666666; font-size: 12px; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;"><div><img src="http://www.usa.canon.com/CUSA/assets/app/images/cameras/eos/EOS_Rebel_T3/profile/t3_3q_90x60.gif" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px;" title="EOS Rebel T3 18-55mm IS II Kit" /></div>EOS<br />
Rebel T3<br />
EF-S<br />
18-55IS II Kit</a></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(209, 209, 209); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 0px; cursor: default; font-size: 11px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: center; width: 96px;"><div align="center"><table cellspacing="0" class="compare" style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; table-layout: auto; text-align: center; width: 68px;"><tbody>
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</tbody></table></div></td><td style="border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: center; width: 107px;" valign="top" width="20.0%"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: center; width: 107px;" valign="top" width="20.0%"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: center; width: 107px;" valign="top" width="20.0%"></td></tr>
</tbody></table></div></div></form></div></div></div>John Michael Acehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16447213303343013873noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1050591295065099165.post-88971598156020129902011-10-30T01:30:00.001-07:002011-10-30T01:30:34.585-07:00Aerial Photography<div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;"><b>Aerial photography</b> is the taking of photographs of the ground from an elevated position. The term usually refers to images in which the camera is not supported by a ground-based structure. Cameras may be hand held or mounted, and photographs may be taken by a photographer, triggered remotely or triggered automatically. Platforms for aerial photography include fixed-wing <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aircraft" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Aircraft">aircraft</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helicopter" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Helicopter">helicopters</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balloon_(aircraft)" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Balloon (aircraft)">balloons</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blimp" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Blimp">blimps</a> and <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dirigible" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Dirigible">dirigibles</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rocket" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Rocket">rockets</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kite_aerial_photography" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Kite aerial photography">kites</a>, poles,<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parachuting" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Parachuting">parachutes</a>, and vehicle mounted poles . Aerial photography should not be confused with <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air-to-Air_Photography" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Air-to-Air Photography">Air-to-Air Photography</a>, when aircraft serve both as a photo platform and subject.</div><table class="toc" id="toc" style="background-color: white; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; color: black; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 19px; padding-bottom: 5px; padding-left: 5px; padding-right: 5px; padding-top: 5px;"><tbody>
<tr><td><div id="toctitle" style="direction: ltr; text-align: center;"><h2 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; border-width: initial; display: inline; font-size: 12px; margin-bottom: 0.6em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; width: auto;">Contents</h2> <span class="toctoggle" style="font-size: 11px;"> [<a class="internal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerial_photography#" id="togglelink" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">hide</a>] </span></div><ul style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-image: none; list-style-type: none; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.3em; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left;"><li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerial_photography#History" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">History</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerial_photography#Uses_of_imagery" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Uses of imagery</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-3" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerial_photography#Aerial_photography_platforms" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Aerial photography platforms</span></a><ul style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-image: none; list-style-type: none; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 2em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;"><li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerial_photography#Radio-controlled_aircraft" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">3.1</span> <span class="toctext">Radio-controlled aircraft</span></a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-5" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerial_photography#Types_of_aerial_photographs" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Types of aerial photographs</span></a><ul style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-image: none; list-style-type: none; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 2em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;"><li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerial_photography#Oblique_photographs" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">4.1</span> <span class="toctext">Oblique photographs</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-7" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerial_photography#Vertical_photographs" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">4.2</span> <span class="toctext">Vertical photographs</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-8" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerial_photography#Combinations" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">4.3</span> <span class="toctext">Combinations</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-9" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerial_photography#Orthophotos" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">4.4</span> <span class="toctext">Orthophotos</span></a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-10" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerial_photography#Aerial_video" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">Aerial video</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-11" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerial_photography#See_also" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-12" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerial_photography#References" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-13" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerial_photography#External_links" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">8</span> <span class="toctext">External links</span></a></li>
</ul></td></tr>
</tbody></table><h2 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 19px; font-weight: normal; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.6em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aerial_photography&action=edit&section=1" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="History">History</span></h2><div class="thumb tright" style="background-color: white; clear: right; float: right; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 1.3em; margin-left: 1.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><div class="thumbinner" style="background-color: #f9f9f9; border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; font-size: 12px; min-width: 100px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-top: 3px !important; text-align: center; width: 222px;"><a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Brooklyn_Museum_-_Nadar_%C3%89levant_la_Photographie_%C3%A0_la_Hauteur_de_l%27Art_-_Honor%C3%A9_Daumier.jpg" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="" class="thumbimage" height="284" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Brooklyn_Museum_-_Nadar_%C3%89levant_la_Photographie_%C3%A0_la_Hauteur_de_l%27Art_-_Honor%C3%A9_Daumier.jpg/220px-Brooklyn_Museum_-_Nadar_%C3%89levant_la_Photographie_%C3%A0_la_Hauteur_de_l%27Art_-_Honor%C3%A9_Daumier.jpg" style="background-color: white; border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-color: initial; border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" width="220" /></a><div class="thumbcaption" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; font-size: 11px; line-height: 1.4em; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-top: 3px !important; text-align: left;"><div class="magnify" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; float: right;"><a class="internal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Brooklyn_Museum_-_Nadar_%C3%89levant_la_Photographie_%C3%A0_la_Hauteur_de_l%27Art_-_Honor%C3%A9_Daumier.jpg" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; color: #0645ad; display: block; text-decoration: none;" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="http://bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.18/common/images/magnify-clip.png" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; border-width: initial; display: block; vertical-align: middle;" width="15" /></a></div><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honor%C3%A9_Daumier" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Honoré Daumier">Honoré Daumier</a>, "Nadar élevant la Photographie à la hauteur de l'Art" (Nadar elevating Photography to Art), published in<i>Le Boulevard</i>, May 25, 1862.</div></div></div><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Aerial photography was first practiced by the French photographer and <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balloonist" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Balloonist">balloonist</a> <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaspard-F%C3%A9lix_Tournachon" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Gaspard-Félix Tournachon">Gaspard-Félix Tournachon</a>, known as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nadar_(photographer)" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Nadar (photographer)">"Nadar"</a>, in 1858 over Paris, France. <sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-0" style="line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerial_photography#cite_note-0" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[1]</a></sup></div><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">The first use of a motion picture camera mounted to a heavier-than-air aircraft took place on April 24, 1909 over Rome in the 3:28 silent film short, <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilbur_Wright_und_seine_Flugmaschine" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Wilbur Wright und seine Flugmaschine">Wilbur Wright und seine Flugmaschine</a></i>.</div><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">The first special semiautomatic aerial camera was designed in 1911 by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russians" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Russians">Russian</a> military engineer — <a class="new" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Colonel_Potte_V._F.&action=edit&redlink=1" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #ba0000; text-decoration: none;" title="Colonel Potte V. F. (page does not exist)">Colonel Potte V. F.</a><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-First_Aerial_Camera_1-0" style="line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerial_photography#cite_note-First_Aerial_Camera-1" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[2]</a></sup> This aerial camera was used during <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_I" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="World War I">World War I</a>.</div><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">The use of aerial photography for military purposes was expanded during <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_I" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="World War I">World War I</a> by many other aviators such as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fred_Zinn" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Fred Zinn">Fred Zinn</a>. One of the first notable battles was that of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Neuve_Chapelle" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Battle of Neuve Chapelle">Neuve Chapelle</a>.</div><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Aerial mapping came into use on the battlefronts during World War I. In January 1918, <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Allenby" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="General Allenby">General Allenby</a> used five Australian pilots from <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/No._1_Squadron_RAAF" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="No. 1 Squadron RAAF">No. 1 Squadron AFC</a> to photograph a 624 square miles (1,620 km<sup style="line-height: 1em;">2</sup>) area in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palestine" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Palestine">Palestine</a> as an aid to correcting and improving maps of the Turkish front. Lieutenants <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonard_Taplin" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Leonard Taplin">Leonard Taplin</a>,<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allan_Brown_(aviator)" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Allan Brown (aviator)">Allan Runciman Brown</a>, H. L. Fraser, <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Patrick_Kenny" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edward Patrick Kenny">Edward Patrick Kenny</a>, and L. W. Rogers photographed a block of land stretching from the Turkish front lines 32 miles (51 km) deep into their rear areas. Beginning 5 January, they flew with a fighter escort to ward off enemy fighters. Using <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Aircraft_Factory_BE.12" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Royal Aircraft Factory BE.12">Royal Aircraft Factory BE.12</a> and<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martinsyde" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Martinsyde">Martinsyde</a> airplanes, they not only overcame enemy air attacks, but also bucked 65 mile per hour winds, antiaircraft fire, and malfunctioning equipment to complete their task circa 19 January 1918.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-2" style="line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerial_photography#cite_note-2" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[3]</a></sup></div><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">One of the most successful pioneers of the commercial use of aerial photography was by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sherman_Fairchild" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Sherman Fairchild">Sherman Fairchild</a> who started his own aircraft firm <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fairchild_Aircraft" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Fairchild Aircraft">Fairchild Aircraft</a>to develop and build specialized aircraft for high altitude aerial survey missions.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-3" style="line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerial_photography#cite_note-3" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[4]</a></sup> One Fairchild aerial survey aircraft in 1935 carried unit that combined two synchronized cameras, and each camera having five six inch lenses with a ten inch lenses and took photos from 23,000 feet. Each photo cover two hundred and twenty five square miles. One of its first government contracts was an aerial survey of New Mexico to study soil erosion.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-4" style="line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerial_photography#cite_note-4" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[5]</a></sup> A year later, Fairchild introduced a better high altitude camera with nine-lens in one unit that could take a photo of 600 square miles with each exposure from 30,000 feet. <sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-5" style="line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerial_photography#cite_note-5" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[6]</a></sup></div><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">With the advent of inexpensive digital cameras, many people now take candid photographs from commercial aircraft and increasingly from <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_aviation" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="General aviation">general aviation</a>aircraft on private pleasure flights.</div><h2 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 19px; font-weight: normal; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.6em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aerial_photography&action=edit&section=2" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Uses of imagery">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Uses_of_imagery">Uses of imagery</span></h2><div class="thumb tright" style="background-color: white; clear: right; float: right; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 1.3em; margin-left: 1.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><div class="thumbinner" style="background-color: #f9f9f9; border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; font-size: 12px; min-width: 100px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-top: 3px !important; text-align: center; width: 222px;"><a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Balloonreflection.jpg" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="" class="thumbimage" height="165" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Balloonreflection.jpg/220px-Balloonreflection.jpg" style="background-color: white; border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-color: initial; border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" width="220" /></a><div class="thumbcaption" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; font-size: 11px; line-height: 1.4em; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-top: 3px !important; text-align: left;"><div class="magnify" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; float: right;"><a class="internal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Balloonreflection.jpg" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; color: #0645ad; display: block; text-decoration: none;" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="http://bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.18/common/images/magnify-clip.png" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; border-width: initial; display: block; vertical-align: middle;" width="15" /></a></div>Reflection of a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hot_air_balloon" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Hot air balloon">hot air balloon</a>, partially obscured by a pier, an example of low-altitude aerial photography</div></div></div><div class="thumb tright" style="background-color: white; clear: right; float: right; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 1.3em; margin-left: 1.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><div class="thumbinner" style="background-color: #f9f9f9; border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; font-size: 12px; min-width: 100px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-top: 3px !important; text-align: center; width: 222px;"><a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Spelterini_Pyramids.jpg" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="" class="thumbimage" height="161" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Spelterini_Pyramids.jpg/220px-Spelterini_Pyramids.jpg" style="background-color: white; border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-color: initial; border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" width="220" /></a><div class="thumbcaption" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; font-size: 11px; line-height: 1.4em; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-top: 3px !important; text-align: left;"><div class="magnify" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; float: right;"><a class="internal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Spelterini_Pyramids.jpg" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; color: #0645ad; display: block; text-decoration: none;" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="http://bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.18/common/images/magnify-clip.png" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; border-width: initial; display: block; vertical-align: middle;" width="15" /></a></div><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giza_pyramid_complex" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Giza pyramid complex">Giza pyramid complex</a>, photographed from <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eduard_Spelterini" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Eduard Spelterini">Eduard Spelterini</a>'s balloon on November 21, 1904</div></div></div><div class="thumb tright" style="background-color: white; clear: right; float: right; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 1.3em; margin-left: 1.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><div class="thumbinner" style="background-color: #f9f9f9; border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; font-size: 12px; min-width: 100px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-top: 3px !important; text-align: center; width: 222px;"><a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ilha_do_Fogo_aerial_shot_1.jpg" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="" class="thumbimage" height="165" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Ilha_do_Fogo_aerial_shot_1.jpg/220px-Ilha_do_Fogo_aerial_shot_1.jpg" style="background-color: white; border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-color: initial; border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" width="220" /></a><div class="thumbcaption" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; font-size: 11px; line-height: 1.4em; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-top: 3px !important; text-align: left;"><div class="magnify" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; float: right;"><a class="internal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ilha_do_Fogo_aerial_shot_1.jpg" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; color: #0645ad; display: block; text-decoration: none;" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="http://bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.18/common/images/magnify-clip.png" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; border-width: initial; display: block; vertical-align: middle;" width="15" /></a></div><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fogo,_Cape_Verde" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Fogo, Cape Verde">Fogo island</a> aerial shot taken from an Airbus cockpit by the pilot himself</div></div></div><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Aerial photography is used in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartography" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Cartography">cartography</a><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-colorado_6-0" style="line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerial_photography#cite_note-colorado-6" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[7]</a></sup> (particularly in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photogrammetry" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Photogrammetry">photogrammetric</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surveying" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Surveying">surveys</a>, which are often the basis for <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topographic_maps" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Topographic maps">topographic maps</a>), land-use planning,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-colorado_6-1" style="line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerial_photography#cite_note-colorado-6" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[7]</a></sup><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerial_archaeology" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Aerial archaeology">archaeology</a>,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-colorado_6-2" style="line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerial_photography#cite_note-colorado-6" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[7]</a></sup> <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Movie_production" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Movie production">movie production</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_environment" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Natural environment">environmental</a> studies, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surveillance" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Surveillance">surveillance</a>, commercial advertising, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conveyancing" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Conveyancing">conveyancing</a>, and artistic projects. In the United States, aerial photographs are used in many <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phase_I_Environmental_Site_Assessment" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Phase I Environmental Site Assessment">Phase I Environmental Site Assessments</a> for property analysis. Aerial photos are often processed using <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geographic_information_system" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Geographic information system">GIS</a> software.</div><h2 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 19px; font-weight: normal; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.6em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aerial_photography&action=edit&section=3" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Aerial photography platforms">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Aerial_photography_platforms">Aerial photography platforms</span></h2><h3 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; font-weight: normal; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aerial_photography&action=edit&section=4" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Radio-controlled aircraft">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Radio-controlled_aircraft">Radio-controlled aircraft</span></h3><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Advances in <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_controlled_model" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Radio controlled model">radio controlled models</a> have made it possible for <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Model_aircraft" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Model aircraft">model aircraft</a> to conduct low-altitude aerial photography. This has benefited <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Real-estate" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Real-estate">real-estate</a>advertising, where commercial and residential properties are the photographic subject. Full-size, manned aircraft are prohibited from low flights above populated locations.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-7" style="line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerial_photography#cite_note-7" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[8]</a></sup> Small scale model aircraft offer increased photographic access to these previously restricted areas. Miniature vehicles do not replace full size aircraft, as full size aircraft are capable of longer flight times, higher altitudes, and greater equipment payloads. They are, however, useful in any situation in which a full-scale aircraft would be dangerous to operate. Examples would include the inspection of transformers atop power transmission lines and slow, low-level flight over agricultural fields, both of which can be accomplished by a large-scale radio controlled helicopter. Professional-grade, gyroscopically stabilized camera platforms are available for use under such a model; a large model helicopter with a 26cc gasoline engine can hoist a payload of approximately seven kilograms (15 lbs).</div><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Recent (2006) FAA regulations grounding all commercial RC model flights have been upgraded to require formal FAA certification before permission to fly at any altitude in USA.</div><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Because anything capable of being viewed from a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_space" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Public space">public space</a> is considered outside the realm of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Privacy" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Privacy">privacy</a> in the United States, aerial photography may legally document features and occurrences on private property.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-8" style="line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerial_photography#cite_note-8" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[9]</a></sup></div><h2 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 19px; font-weight: normal; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.6em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aerial_photography&action=edit&section=5" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Types of aerial photographs">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Types_of_aerial_photographs">Types of aerial photographs</span></h2><h3 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; font-weight: normal; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aerial_photography&action=edit&section=6" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Oblique photographs">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Oblique_photographs">Oblique photographs</span></h3><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Photographs taken at an angle are called <i>oblique photographs</i>. If they are taken from a low angle earth surface–aircraft, they are called <i>low oblique</i> and photographs taken from a high angle are called <i>high</i> or <i>steep oblique</i>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-9" style="line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerial_photography#cite_note-9" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[10]</a></sup></div><h3 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; font-weight: normal; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aerial_photography&action=edit&section=7" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Vertical photographs">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Vertical_photographs">Vertical photographs</span></h3><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Vertical photographs are taken straight down.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-10" style="line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerial_photography#cite_note-10" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[11]</a></sup> They are mainly used in photogrammetry and image interpretation. Pictures that will be used in photogrammetry are traditionally taken with special large format cameras with <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calibration" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Calibration">calibrated</a> and documented geometric properties.</div><h3 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; font-weight: normal; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aerial_photography&action=edit&section=8" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Combinations">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Combinations">Combinations</span></h3><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Aerial photographs are often combined. Depending on their purpose it can be done in several ways, of which a few are listed below.</div><ul style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; list-style-image: url(data:image/png; list-style-type: square; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 1.5em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.3em; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panorama" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Panorama">Panoramas</a> can be made by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image_stitching" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Image stitching">stitching</a> several photographs taken with one hand held camera.</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">In <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pictometry" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Pictometry">pictometry</a> five rigidly mounted cameras provide one vertical and four low oblique pictures that can be used together.</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">In some digital cameras for aerial photogrammetry images from several imaging elements, sometimes with separate lenses, are geometrically corrected and combined to one image in the camera.</li>
</ul><h3 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; font-weight: normal; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aerial_photography&action=edit&section=9" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Orthophotos">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Orthophotos">Orthophotos</span></h3><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Vertical photographs are often used to create <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orthophoto" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Orthophoto">orthophotos</a>, photographs which have been geometrically "corrected" so as to be usable as a map. In other words, an orthophoto is a simulation of a photograph taken from an infinite distance, looking straight down to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nadir" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Nadir">nadir</a>. Perspective must obviously be removed, but variations in terrain should also be corrected for. Multiple geometric transformations are applied to the image, depending on the perspective and terrain corrections required on a particular part of the image.</div><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Orthophotos are commonly used in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geographic_information_system" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Geographic information system">geographic information systems</a>, such as are used by mapping agencies (e.g. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ordnance_Survey" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Ordnance Survey">Ordnance Survey</a>) to create maps. Once the images have been aligned, or 'registered', with known real-world coordinates, they can be widely deployed.</div><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Large sets of orthophotos, typically derived from multiple sources and divided into "tiles" (each typically 256 x 256 pixels in size), are widely used in online map systems such as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_Maps" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Google Maps">Google Maps</a>.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OpenStreetMap" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="OpenStreetMap">OpenStreetMap</a> offers the use of similar orthophotos for deriving new map data. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_Earth" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Google Earth">Google Earth</a> overlays orthophotos or <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satellite_imagery" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Satellite imagery">satellite imagery</a> onto a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_elevation_model" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Digital elevation model">digital elevation model</a> to simulate 3D landscapes.</div><h2 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 19px; font-weight: normal; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.6em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aerial_photography&action=edit&section=10" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Aerial video">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Aerial_video">Aerial video</span></h2><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">With advancements in video technology, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerial_video" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Aerial video">aerial video</a> is becoming more popular. Orthogonal video is shot from aircraft mapping pipelines, crop fields, and other points of interest. Using GPS, video may be embedded with meta data and later synced with a video mapping program.</div><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">This ‘Spatial Multimedia’ is the timely union of digital media including still photography, motion video, stereo, panoramic imagery sets, immersive media constructs, audio, and other data with location and date-time information from the GPS and other location designs.</div><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Aerial videos are emerging Spatial Multimedia which can be used for scene understanding and object tracking. The input video is captured by low flying aerial platforms and typically consists of strong parallax from non-ground-plane structures. The integration of digital video, global positioning systems (GPS) and automated image processing will improve the accuracy and cost-effectiveness of data collection and reduction. Several different aerial platforms are under investigation for the data collection.</div>John Michael Acehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16447213303343013873noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1050591295065099165.post-56396975876381465352011-10-30T01:29:00.001-07:002011-10-30T01:29:18.710-07:00Analog Photography<div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;"><b>Analog photography</b> is a commonly used term for <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photography" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Photography">photography</a> that uses a progressively changing recording medium, which may be either <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_process" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Chemical process">chemical process</a> based (e.g., <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photographic_film" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Photographic film">photographic film</a> or <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photographic_plate" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Photographic plate">plate</a>) or <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronics" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Electronics">electronic</a> (e.g., <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_camera_tube" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Video camera tube">vidicon</a> or <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charge-coupled_device" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Charge-coupled device">CCD</a> sensor).</div><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">In a film camera that uses the <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gelatin-silver_process" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Gelatin-silver process">gelatin-silver process</a>, light falling upon <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photographic_emulsion" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Photographic emulsion">photographic emulsions</a> containing <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silver_halide" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Silver halide">silver halides</a> is recorded as a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latent_image" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Latent image">latent image</a>. The latent image is subjected to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photographic_processing" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Photographic processing">photographic processing</a>, which makes it visible and insensitive to light.</div><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">In a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_camera" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Video camera">video camera</a> or <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_camera" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Digital camera">digital still camera</a>, the signal is captured with a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_camera_tube" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Video camera tube">video camera tube</a> or <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charge_coupled_device" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Charge coupled device">charge coupled device</a> sensor, which sends the picture to be processed by the camera's electronics. The signal can be transmitted or recorded on a <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Storage_media#Recording_medium" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Storage media">storage device</a> for later playback.</div><table class="toc" id="toc" style="background-color: white; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; color: black; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 19px; padding-bottom: 5px; padding-left: 5px; padding-right: 5px; padding-top: 5px;"><tbody>
<tr><td><div id="toctitle" style="direction: ltr; text-align: center;"><h2 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; border-width: initial; display: inline; font-size: 12px; margin-bottom: 0.6em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; width: auto;">Contents</h2> <span class="toctoggle" style="font-size: 11px;"> [<a class="internal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analog_photography#" id="togglelink" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">hide</a>] </span></div><ul style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-image: none; list-style-type: none; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.3em; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left;"><li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analog_photography#Popularity" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Popularity</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analog_photography#See_also" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-3" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analog_photography#References" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-4" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analog_photography#External_Links" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">External Links</span></a></li>
</ul></td></tr>
</tbody></table><h2 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 19px; font-weight: normal; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.6em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Analog_photography&action=edit&section=1" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Popularity">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Popularity">Popularity</span></h2><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Analog photography is frequently used as a title for those who are keen to work with, or do work with more traditional types of photography; dedicated online communities have been established in which like minded individuals together share and explore historic photographic practices.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-0" style="line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analog_photography#cite_note-0" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[1]</a></sup> Analog photography has in fact become much more popular with younger generations who have become increasingly interested in the traditional photographic practice; sales in film based cameras began to soar and youth were seen to embrace some 19th century technology <sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-1" style="line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analog_photography#cite_note-1" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[2]</a></sup> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_Outfitters" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Urban Outfitters">Urban Outfitters</a>, a popular clothing chain has picked up on the trend and now offers more than 60 product combinations relating to cameras most of which are film-based.</div><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Polaroid used to be one of the most popular tools for analog instant photography, Facing the digital revolution, Polaroid stopped production of analog instant film in 2008. A company called Impossible Project acquired though Polaroid's production machines in order to produce new instant films for Vintage Polaroid cameras and to revive the analog Polaroid photography technique. </div>John Michael Acehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16447213303343013873noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1050591295065099165.post-6590506082915713162011-10-30T01:23:00.001-07:002011-10-30T01:23:05.268-07:00Digital Photography<div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;"><b>Digital photography</b> is a form of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photography" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Photography">photography</a> that uses an array of light sensitive sensors to capture the image focused by the lens, as opposed to an exposure on light sensitive film. The captured image is then stored as a digital file ready for digital processing (colour correction, sizing, cropping, etc.), viewing or printing.</div><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Until the advent of such technology, photographs were made by exposing light sensitive <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photographic_film" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Photographic film">photographic film</a>, and used chemical <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photographic_processing" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Photographic processing">photographic processing</a> to develop and stabilize the image. By contrast, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_image" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Digital image">digital photographs</a> can be displayed, printed, stored, manipulated, transmitted, and archived using digital and<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Computer">computer</a> techniques, without chemical processing.</div><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Digital photography is one of several forms of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_imaging" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Digital imaging">digital imaging</a>. Digital images are also created by non-photographic equipment such as <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_tomography" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Computer tomography">computer tomography</a>scanners and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_telescope" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Radio telescope">radio telescopes</a>. Digital images can also be made by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image_scanner" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Image scanner">scanning</a> conventional photographic images.</div><table class="toc" id="toc" style="background-color: white; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; color: black; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 19px; padding-bottom: 5px; padding-left: 5px; padding-right: 5px; padding-top: 5px;"><tbody>
<tr><td><div id="toctitle" style="direction: ltr; text-align: center;"><h2 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; border-width: initial; display: inline; font-size: 12px; margin-bottom: 0.6em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; width: auto;">Contents</h2></div><ul style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-image: none; list-style-type: none; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.3em; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left;"><li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_Photography#The_digital_camera" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">The digital camera</span></a><ul style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-image: none; list-style-type: none; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 2em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;"><li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-2" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_Photography#History" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">1.1</span> <span class="toctext">History</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_Photography#Sensors_and_storage" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">1.2</span> <span class="toctext">Sensors and storage</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_Photography#Multifunctionality_and_connectivity" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">1.3</span> <span class="toctext">Multifunctionality and connectivity</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-5" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_Photography#Performance_metrics" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">1.4</span> <span class="toctext">Performance metrics</span></a><ul style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-image: none; list-style-type: none; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 2em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;"><li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-6" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_Photography#Pixel_counts" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">1.4.1</span> <span class="toctext">Pixel counts</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-7" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_Photography#Dynamic_range" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">1.4.2</span> <span class="toctext">Dynamic range</span></a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-8" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_Photography#Storage" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">1.5</span> <span class="toctext">Storage</span></a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-9" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_Photography#Applications_and_considerations" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Applications and considerations</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-10" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_Photography#Comparison_with_film_photography" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Comparison with film photography</span></a><ul style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-image: none; list-style-type: none; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 2em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;"><li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-11" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_Photography#Advantages_of_consumer_digital_cameras" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">3.1</span> <span class="toctext">Advantages of consumer digital cameras</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-12" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_Photography#Advantages_of_professional_digital_cameras" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">3.2</span> <span class="toctext">Advantages of professional digital cameras</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-13" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_Photography#Disadvantages_of_digital_cameras" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">3.3</span> <span class="toctext">Disadvantages of digital cameras</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-14" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_Photography#Equivalent_features" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">3.4</span> <span class="toctext">Equivalent features</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-15" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_Photography#A_comparison_of_frame_aspect_ratios" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">3.5</span> <span class="toctext">A comparison of frame aspect ratios</span></a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-16" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_Photography#Market_impact" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Market impact</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-17" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_Photography#Social_impact" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">Social impact</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-18" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_Photography#Recent_research_and_innovation" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">Recent research and innovation</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-19" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_Photography#See_also" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-20" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_Photography#References" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">8</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-21" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_Photography#External_links" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">9</span> <span class="toctext">External links</span></a></li>
</ul></td></tr>
</tbody></table><h2 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 19px; font-weight: normal; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.6em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Digital_photography&action=edit&section=1" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: The digital camera">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="The_digital_camera">The digital camera</span></h2><div class="rellink relarticle mainarticle" style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: italic; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; padding-left: 2em;">Main article: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_camera" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Digital camera">Digital camera</a></div><h3 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; font-weight: normal; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Digital_photography&action=edit&section=2" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="History">History</span></h3><div class="rellink relarticle mainarticle" style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: italic; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; padding-left: 2em;">Main article: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_camera#Digital_Cameras" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="History of the camera">History of the camera#Digital Cameras</a></div><table class="metadata plainlinks ambox mbox-small-left ambox-notice" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-collapse: collapse; border-left-color: rgb(30, 144, 255); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 10px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; color: black; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 11px; line-height: 1.25em; margin-bottom: 4px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 1em; margin-top: 4px; width: 238px;"><tbody>
<tr><td class="mbox-image" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 2px; text-align: center;"><a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; color: #0645ad; padding-bottom: 0px !important; padding-left: 0px !important; padding-right: 0px !important; padding-top: 0px !important; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="Wiki letter w cropped.svg" height="14" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/20px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" width="20" /></a></td><td class="mbox-text" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; padding-bottom: 0.25em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.25em; width: 192px;">This section requires <a class="external text" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Digital_photography&action=edit" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: url(data:image/png; background-origin: initial; background-position: 0% 0%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #3366bb; padding-bottom: 0px !important; padding-left: 0px !important; padding-right: 13px; padding-top: 0px !important; text-decoration: none;">expansion</a>.</td></tr>
</tbody></table><h3 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; font-weight: normal; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Digital_photography&action=edit&section=3" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Sensors and storage">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Sensors_and_storage">Sensors and storage</span></h3><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image_sensor" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Image sensor">Image sensors</a> read the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intensity_(physics)" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Intensity (physics)">intensity</a> of light, and <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_memory" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Digital memory">digital memory devices</a> store the digital image information as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RGB_color_space" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="RGB color space">RGB color space</a> or as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raw_image_format" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Raw image format">raw data</a>.</div><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">There are two main types of sensors:</div><ul style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; list-style-image: url(data:image/png; list-style-type: square; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 1.5em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.3em; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charge-coupled_device" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Charge-coupled device">charge-coupled device</a> (CCD) – photocharge is shifted to a central charge-to-voltage converter</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CMOS" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="CMOS">CMOS</a> sensors ("<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Active_pixel_sensor" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Active pixel sensor">Active pixel sensor</a>")</li>
</ul><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Nearly all digital cameras use built-in and/or removable solid state <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flash_memory" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Flash memory">flash memory</a>. Digital <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tapeless_camcorder" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Tapeless camcorder">tapeless camcorders</a> that double as a digital still camera use flash memory, discs and internal hard drives. Certain 20th century digital cameras such as the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sony_Mavica" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Sony Mavica">Sony Mavica</a> range used <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floppy_disk" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Floppy disk">floppy disks</a> and mini-CDs.</div><h3 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; font-weight: normal; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Digital_photography&action=edit&section=4" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Multifunctionality and connectivity">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Multifunctionality_and_connectivity">Multifunctionality and connectivity</span></h3><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Except for some <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charge-coupled_device" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Charge-coupled device">linear array</a> type of cameras at the highest-end and simple <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_cam" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Web cam">web cams</a> at the lowest-end, a <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_memory" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Digital memory">digital memory</a> device (usually a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory_card" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Memory card">memory card</a>; <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floppy_disk" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Floppy disk">floppy disks</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CD-RW" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="CD-RW">CD-RWs</a> are less common) is used for storing images, which may be transferred to a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Computer">computer</a> later.</div><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Digital cameras can take pictures, and may also record sound and video. Some can be used as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Webcam" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Webcam">webcams</a>, some can use the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PictBridge" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="PictBridge">PictBridge</a> standard to connect to a printer without using a computer, and some can display pictures directly on a television set. Similarly, many <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camcorder" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Camcorder">camcorders</a> can take still photographs, and store them on <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Videotape" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Videotape">videotape</a> or on <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flash_memory" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Flash memory">flash memorycards</a> with the same functionality as<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_camera" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Digital camera">digital cameras</a>.</div><h3 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; font-weight: normal; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Digital_photography&action=edit&section=5" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Performance metrics">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Performance_metrics">Performance metrics</span></h3><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">The quality of a digital image is a composite of various factors, many of which are similar to those of film cameras. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pixel" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Pixel">Pixel</a> count (typically listed in <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megapixel" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Megapixel">megapixels</a>, millions of pixels) is only one of the major factors, though it is the most heavily marketed <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Figure_of_merit" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Figure of merit">figure of merit</a>. Digital camera manufacturers advertise this figure because consumers can use it to easily compare camera capabilities. It is not, however, the major factor in evaluating a digital camera for most applications. The processing system inside the camera that turns the raw data into a color-balanced and pleasing photograph is usually more critical, which is why some 4+ megapixel cameras perform better than higher-end cameras.</div><div class="thumb tright" style="background-color: white; clear: right; float: right; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 1.3em; margin-left: 1.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.5em; width: 289px;"><div class="thumbinner" style="background-color: #f9f9f9; border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; font-size: 12px; min-width: 100px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-top: 3px !important; text-align: center;"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 1px; margin-left: 1px; margin-right: 1px; margin-top: 1px; width: 145px;"><div class="thumbimage" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px;"><a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Matakis_-_blurred.jpg" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="" height="147" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Matakis_-_blurred.jpg/143px-Matakis_-_blurred.jpg" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" width="143" /></a></div></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 1px; margin-left: 1px; margin-right: 1px; margin-top: 1px; width: 132px;"><div class="thumbimage" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px;"><a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MARTAKIS1.jpg" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="" height="134" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/MARTAKIS1.jpg/130px-MARTAKIS1.jpg" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" width="130" /></a></div></div><div class="thumbcaption" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; clear: left; font-size: 11px; line-height: 1.4em; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-top: 3px !important; text-align: left;">Image at left has a higher <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pixel_count" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Pixel count">pixel count</a> than the one to the right, but is still of worse <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spatial_resolution" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Spatial resolution">spatial resolution</a>.</div></div></div><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Resolution in pixels is not the only measure of image quality. A larger sensor with the same number of pixels generally produces a better image than a smaller one. One of the most important differences is an improvement in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image_noise" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Image noise">image noise</a>. This is one of the advantages of digital SLR cameras, which have larger sensors than simpler cameras of the same resolution.</div><ul style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; list-style-image: url(data:image/png; list-style-type: square; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 1.5em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.3em; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><b>Lens quality:</b> resolution, <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image_distortion" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Image distortion">distortion</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dispersion_(optics)" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Dispersion (optics)">dispersion</a> (see <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lens_(optics)" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Lens (optics)">Lens (optics)</a>)</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><b>Capture medium:</b> CMOS, CCD, <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Negative_film" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Negative film">negative film</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reversal_film" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Reversal film">reversal film</a> etc.</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><b>Capture format:</b> pixel count, digital file type (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raw_image_format" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Raw image format">RAW</a>, <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TIFF" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="TIFF">TIFF</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JPEG" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="JPEG">JPEG</a>), <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_format" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Film format">film format</a> (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/135_film" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="135 film">135 film</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/120_film" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="120 film">120 film</a>, 5x4, 10x8).</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><b>Processing:</b> digital and / or chemical processing of 'negative' and 'print'.</li>
</ul><h4 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; font-weight: normal; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Digital_photography&action=edit&section=6" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Pixel counts">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Pixel_counts">Pixel counts</span></h4><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">The number of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pixel" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Pixel">pixels</a> <i>n</i> for a given maximum <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image_resolution" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Image resolution">resolution</a> (<i>w</i> horizontal pixels by <i>h</i> vertical pixels) is the product <i>n</i> = <i>w × h</i>. This yields e. g. 1.92 megapixels (1,920,000 pixels) for an image of 1600 × 1200. The majority of compact as well as some <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_single-lens_reflex_camera" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Digital single-lens reflex camera">DSLR</a> digital cameras have a 4:3 <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspect_ratio_(image)" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Aspect ratio (image)">aspect ratio</a>, i.e. <i>w/h = 4/3</i>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-DPR_0-0" style="line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_Photography#cite_note-DPR-0" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[1]</a></sup> According to <i>Digital Photography Review</i>, the 4:3 ratio is because "computer monitors are 4:3 ratio, old CCD's always had a 4:3 ratio, and thus digital cameras inherited this aspect ratio."<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-DPR_0-1" style="line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_Photography#cite_note-DPR-0" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[1]</a></sup></div><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">The pixel count quoted by manufacturers can be misleading as it may not be the number of full-colour pixels. For cameras using single-chip <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image_sensor" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Image sensor">image sensors</a> the number claimed is the total number of single-colour-sensitive photosensors, whether they have different locations in the plane, as with the <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bayer_sensor" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Bayer sensor">Bayer sensor</a>, or in stacks of three co-located photosensors as in the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foveon_X3_sensor" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Foveon X3 sensor">Foveon X3 sensor</a>. However, the images have different numbers of RGB pixels: Bayer-sensor cameras produce as many RGB pixels as photosensors via <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demosaicing" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Demosaicing">demosaicing</a> (interpolation), while Foveon sensors produce uninterpolated image files with one-third as many RGB pixels as photosensors. It is difficult to compare the resolutions based on the megapixel ratings of these two types of sensors, and therefore sometimes a subject of dispute.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-1" style="line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_Photography#cite_note-1" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[2]</a></sup></div><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">The relative increase in detail resulting from an increase in resolution is better compared by looking at the number of pixels across (or down) the picture, rather than the total number of pixels in the picture area. For example, a sensor of 2560 × 1600 sensor elements is described as "4 megapixels" (2560 × 1600 = 4,096,000). Increasing to 3200 × 2048 increases the pixels in the picture to 6,553,600 (6.5 megapixels), a factor of 1.6, but the pixels per cm in the picture (at the same image size) increases by only 1.25 times. A measure of the comparative increase in linear resolution is the square root of the increase in area resolution, i.e., megapixels in the entire image.</div><h4 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; font-weight: normal; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Digital_photography&action=edit&section=7" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Dynamic range">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Dynamic_range">Dynamic range</span></h4><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Practical imaging systems, digital and film, have a limited "<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynamic_range" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Dynamic range">dynamic range</a>": the range of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luminosity" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Luminosity">luminosity</a> that can be reproduced accurately. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clipping_(photography)" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Clipping (photography)">Highlights</a> of the subject that are too bright are rendered as white, with no detail; <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shadow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Shadow">shadows</a> that are too dark are rendered as black. The loss of detail is not abrupt with film, or in dark shadows with digital sensors: some detail is retained as brightness moves out of the dynamic range. "Highlight burn-out" of digital sensors, however, can be abrupt, and highlight detail may be lost. And as the sensor elements for different colors saturate in turn, there can be gross hue or saturation shift in burnt-out highlights.</div><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Some digital cameras can show these blown highlights in the image review, allowing the photographer to re-shoot the picture with a modified exposure. Others compensate for the total contrast of a scene by selectively exposing darker pixels longer. A third technique is used by Fujifilm in its <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FinePix_S3_Pro" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="FinePix S3 Pro">FinePix S3 Pro</a> digital SLR. The image sensor contains additional <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photodiode" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Photodiode">photodiodes</a> of lower sensitivity than the main ones; these retain detail in parts of the image too bright for the main sensor.</div><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_dynamic_range_imaging" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="High dynamic range imaging">High dynamic range imaging</a> (HDR) addresses this problem by increasing the dynamic range of images by either</div><ul style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; list-style-image: url(data:image/png; list-style-type: square; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 1.5em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.3em; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">increasing the dynamic range of the image sensor or</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">by using <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exposure_bracket" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Exposure bracket">exposure bracketing</a> and post-processing the separate images to create a single image with a higher dynamic range.</li>
</ul><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">HDR images curtail burn-outs and black-outs.</div><div class="rellink boilerplate further" style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: italic; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; padding-left: 2em;">Further information: <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crushed_black" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Crushed black">Exposure</a></div><h3 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; font-weight: normal; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Digital_photography&action=edit&section=8" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Storage">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Storage">Storage</span></h3><div class="rellink relarticle mainarticle" style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: italic; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; padding-left: 2em;">Main article: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_camera#Storage" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Digital camera">Digital camera#Storage</a></div><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Storage for digital cameras has increased in size and technology with time, from magnetic tape (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steven_Sasson" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Steven Sasson">Steven Sasson</a>'s 1975 prototype) to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floppy_disk" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Floppy disk">floppy disks</a> to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flash_memory" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Flash memory">flash memory</a>.</div><h2 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 19px; font-weight: normal; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.6em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Digital_photography&action=edit&section=9" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Applications and considerations">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Applications_and_considerations">Applications and considerations</span></h2><div class="thumb tright" style="background-color: white; clear: right; float: right; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 1.3em; margin-left: 1.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><div class="thumbinner" style="background-color: #f9f9f9; border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; font-size: 12px; min-width: 100px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-top: 3px !important; text-align: center; width: 222px;"><a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Official_portrait_of_Barack_Obama.jpg" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="" class="thumbimage" height="299" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Official_portrait_of_Barack_Obama.jpg/220px-Official_portrait_of_Barack_Obama.jpg" style="background-color: white; border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-color: initial; border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" width="220" /></a><div class="thumbcaption" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; font-size: 11px; line-height: 1.4em; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-top: 3px !important; text-align: left;"><div class="magnify" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; float: right;"><a class="internal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Official_portrait_of_Barack_Obama.jpg" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; color: #0645ad; display: block; text-decoration: none;" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="http://bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.18/common/images/magnify-clip.png" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; border-width: initial; display: block; vertical-align: middle;" width="15" /></a></div>The <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presidential_portrait_(United_States)" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Presidential portrait (United States)">Presidential Portrait</a> of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barack_Obama" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Barack Obama">Barack Obama</a>was the first official U.S. Presidential Portrait to be taken with a digital camera (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canon_EOS_5D_Mark_II" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Canon EOS 5D Mark II">Canon EOS 5D Mark II</a>).</div></div></div><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">With the acceptable image quality and the other advantages of digital photography (particularly the time pressures of daily newspapers) the majority of professional news photographers capture their images with digital cameras.</div><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Digital photography has also been adopted by many amateur <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snapshot_(photography)" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Snapshot (photography)">snapshot</a> photographers, who take advantage of the convenience of sending images by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Email" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Email">email</a>, placing them on the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="World Wide Web">World Wide Web</a>, or displaying them in <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_picture_frame" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Digital picture frame">digital picture frames</a>. The majority of cameras are <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camera_phone" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Camera phone">camera phones</a> integrated into <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_phone" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Cell phone">cell phones</a> but their usual small, poor quality lenses and sensors render most of them unsuitable for making even moderate size prints.</div><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Some commercial <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photographer" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Photographer">photographers</a>, and some amateurs interested in artistic photography, have been resistant to using digital rather than film cameras because they believe that the image quality available from a digital camera is still inferior to that available from a film camera, and the quality of images taken on <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medium_format_(film)" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Medium format (film)">medium format</a> film was thought to be impossible to match with a digital camera. Some have expressed a concern that changing computer technology may make digital photographs inaccessible in the future. A related concern in a specialized application is the use of digital photographs <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photography_and_the_law" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Photography and the law">in court proceedings</a>, with the added difficulty of demonstrating an image's authenticity. Some high-end film can also still be projected for viewing at a much higher optical resolution than even the best digital projectors. Some professional photographers resist the use of digital cameras because they are poor performers when it comes to speed for multiple shots. Storing an 8MP image takes a lot of time and therefore, in some applications digital cameras are not currently appropriate.</div><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Other commercial photographers, and many amateurs, have enthusiastically embraced digital photography because they believe that its flexibility and lower long-term costs outweigh its initial price disadvantages. Almost all of the cost of digital photography is <i>capital</i> cost, meaning that the cost is for the equipment needed to store and copy the images, and once purchased requires virtually no further expense outlay. Film photography requires continuous expenditure of funds for supplies and developing, although the equipment itself does not outdate so quickly and has a longer service life.<sup class="Template-Fact" style="line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources from September 2011">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></div><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Some commercial photographers have also begun moving to digital technology because of the tremendous editing capabilities now offered on computers. The photographer is able to color-balance and otherwise manipulate the image in ways that traditional <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darkroom" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Darkroom">darkroom</a> techniques cannot offer, or are far more laborious in the darkroom. With fully color-balanced systems from the camera to the monitor to the printer, the photographer can now supply, either as a print or as a computer display, what is actually seen on the photographer's screen. Film users can use a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_scanner" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Film scanner">film scanner</a>, thus mixing the two technologies. Rapid advances in the technologies have resulted in many specialised <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_abbreviations_in_photography" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="List of abbreviations in photography">abbreviations and initialisms</a> being freely used in publications and internet discussions.</div><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">However, digital cameras require batteries that need to be recharged or replaced frequently, and this means that a photographer needs access to electrical outlets. Digital cameras also tend to be much more sensitive to moisture and extreme cold. For this reason, photographers who work in remote areas may favour film SLR cameras, though many higher-end DSLRs are now equipped with weather-resistant bodies. Medium and large-format film cameras are also still preferred by publications insisting on the very highest detail and resolution.</div><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Digital photography was used in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrophotography" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Astrophotography">astrophotography</a> long before its use by the general public and had almost completely displaced photographic plates by the early 1980s. CCDs are more sensitive to light than plates, and have a much more uniform and predictable response. The CCDs used in astronomy are similar to those used by the general public, but are generally monochrome. Many of those used in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrared_astronomy" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Infrared astronomy">infrared astronomy</a> are cooled with <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquid_nitrogen" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Liquid nitrogen">liquid nitrogen</a> so as to reduce the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image_noise" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Image noise">image noise</a> caused by heat. Many astronomical instruments have arrays of many CCDs, sometimes totaling almost a billion pixels. Amateur astronomers also commonly use digital cameras, including the use of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Webcam" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Webcam">webcams</a> for <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speckle_imaging" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Speckle imaging">speckle imaging</a> or "video astronomy".</div><h2 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 19px; font-weight: normal; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.6em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Digital_photography&action=edit&section=10" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Comparison with film photography">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Comparison_with_film_photography">Comparison with film photography</span></h2><div class="rellink relarticle mainarticle" style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: italic; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; padding-left: 2em;">Main article: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_versus_film_photography" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Digital versus film photography">Digital versus film photography</a></div><h3 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; font-weight: normal; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Digital_photography&action=edit&section=11" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Advantages of consumer digital cameras">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Advantages_of_consumer_digital_cameras">Advantages of consumer digital cameras</span></h3><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">The advantages of digital photography over traditional film include:</div><ul style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; list-style-image: url(data:image/png; list-style-type: square; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 1.5em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.3em; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Instant review of pictures, with no wait for the film to be developed: if there's a problem with a picture, the photographer can immediately correct the problem and take another picture</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Minimal ongoing costs for those wishing to capture hundreds of photographs for digital uses, such as computer storage and e-mailing, but not printing</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">If one already owns a newer computer, permanent storage on digital media is considerably cheaper than film</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Photos may be copied from one digital medium to another without any degradation</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Pictures do not need to be scanned before viewing them on a computer</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Ability to print photos using a computer and consumer-grade printer</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Ability to embed <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metadata" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Metadata">metadata</a> within the image file, such as the time and date of the photograph, model of the camera, shutter speed, flash use, and other similar items, to aid in the reviewing and sorting of photographs. Film cameras have limited ability to handle metadata, though many film cameras can "imprint" a date over a picture by exposing the film to an internal <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light-emitting_diode" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Light-emitting diode">LED</a> array (or other device) that displays the date.</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Ability to capture and store hundreds of photographs on the same media device within the digital camera; by contrast, a film camera would require regular changing of film (typically after every 24 or 36 shots)</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Many digital cameras now include an AV-out connector (and cable) to allow the reviewing of photographs to an audience using a television</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Anti-shake functionality (increasingly common in inexpensive cameras) allow taking sharper hand-held pictures where previously a tripod was required</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Ability to change ISO speed settings more conveniently in the middle of shooting, for example when the weather changes from bright sunlight to cloudy. In film photography, film must be unloaded and new film with desired ISO speed loaded.</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Smaller sensor format, compared to 35mm film frame, allows for smaller lenses, wider zoom ranges, and greater depth of field.</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Ability to use the same device to capture video as well as still images.</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Ability to convert the same photo from color to sepia to black & white</li>
</ul><h3 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; font-weight: normal; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Digital_photography&action=edit&section=12" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Advantages of professional digital cameras">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Advantages_of_professional_digital_cameras">Advantages of professional digital cameras</span></h3><div class="thumb tright" style="background-color: white; clear: right; float: right; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 1.3em; margin-left: 1.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><div class="thumbinner" style="background-color: #f9f9f9; border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; font-size: 12px; min-width: 100px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-top: 3px !important; text-align: center; width: 227px;"><a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:SF-ggbridge-retouch.gif" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="" class="thumbimage" height="150" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/SF-ggbridge-retouch.gif/225px-SF-ggbridge-retouch.gif" style="background-color: white; border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-color: initial; border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" width="225" /></a><div class="thumbcaption" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; font-size: 11px; line-height: 1.4em; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-top: 3px !important; text-align: left;"><div class="magnify" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; float: right;"><a class="internal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:SF-ggbridge-retouch.gif" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; color: #0645ad; display: block; text-decoration: none;" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="http://bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.18/common/images/magnify-clip.png" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; border-width: initial; display: block; vertical-align: middle;" width="15" /></a></div>The <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golden_Gate_Bridge" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Golden Gate Bridge">Golden Gate Bridge</a> retouched for painterly light effects</div></div></div><ul style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; list-style-image: url(data:image/png; list-style-type: square; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 1.5em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.3em; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Immediate image review and deletion is possible; lighting and composition can be assessed immediately, which ultimately conserves storage space.</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Faster workflow: Management (colour and file), manipulation and printing tools are more versatile than conventional film processes. However, batch processing of RAW files can be time consuming, even on a fast computer.</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Digital manipulation: A digital image can be modified and manipulated much easier and faster than with traditional negative and print methods. The digital image to the right was captured in RAW format, processed and output in 3 different ways from the source RAW file, then merged and further processed for color saturation and other special effects to produce a more dramatic result than was originally captured with the RAW image.</li>
</ul><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Recent manufacturers such as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikon" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Nikon">Nikon</a> and <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canon_Inc." style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Canon Inc.">Canon</a> have promoted the adoption of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_single-lens_reflex_camera" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Digital single-lens reflex camera">digital single-lens reflex cameras</a> (DSLRs) by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photojournalism" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Photojournalism">photojournalists</a>. Images captured at 2+ <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megapixels" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Megapixels">megapixels</a> are deemed of sufficient quality for small images in newspaper or magazine reproduction. Eight to 24 megapixel images, found in modern digital SLRs, when combined with high-end lenses, can approximate the detail of film prints from <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/35_mm_film" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="35 mm film">35 mm film</a> based SLRs, and the latest 16 megapixel models can produce detailed images that are thought better than 35mm film images and the majority of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medium_format_(film)" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Medium format (film)">medium format</a>cameras.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-2" style="line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_Photography#cite_note-2" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[3]</a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability"><span title="The material in the vicinity of this tag failed verification of its source citation(s) from September 2011">not in citation given</span></a></i>]</sup></div><h3 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; font-weight: normal; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Digital_photography&action=edit&section=13" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Disadvantages of digital cameras">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Disadvantages_of_digital_cameras">Disadvantages of digital cameras</span></h3><ul style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; list-style-image: url(data:image/png; list-style-type: square; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 1.5em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.3em; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Whereas film cameras can have manual backups for electronic and electrical features, digital cameras are entirely dependent on an electrical supply (usually batteries but sometimes power cord when in 'tethered' mode).</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Many digital sensors have less <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_Photography#Dynamic_range" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">dynamic range</a> than color print film. However, some newer CCDs such as Fuji's <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Super_CCD" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Super CCD">Super CCD</a>, which combines diodes of different sensitivity, have improved upon this issue.</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">When highlights burn out, they burn to white without details, while film cameras retain a reduced level of detail, as discussed <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_Photography#Dynamic_range" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">above</a>.</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">High ISO <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image_noise" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Image noise">image noise</a> may manifest as multicolored speckles in digital images, rather than the less-objectionable "grain" of high-ISO film. While this speckling can be removed by noise-reduction software, either in-camera or on a computer, this can have a detrimental effect on image quality as fine detail may be lost in the process.</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aliasing" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Aliasing">Aliasing</a> may add patterns to images that do not exist and would not appear in film.</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">The possibility that in the future certain digital file formats (for example, JPEG) may become obsolete/replaced.</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Dust particles can adhere to the cover glass of the image sensor in digital cameras, resulting in persisting dust spots in images. Film cameras use a fresh piece of film for each shot, so dust does not build up on the film. Digital image sensors may be cleaned with a simple cleaning kit or professionally, and some digital cameras have built-in sensor cleaning mechanisms, mitigating this problem.</li>
</ul><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">For most consumers in prosperous countries such as the United States and Western Europe, the advantages of digital cameras outweigh their disadvantages. However, some professional photographers still prefer film. Much of the post-shooting work done by a photo lab for film is done by the photographer himself for digital images. Concerns that have been raised by professional photographers include: editing and post-processing of RAW files can take longer than 35mm film, downloading a large number of images to a computer can be time-consuming, shooting in remote sites requires the photographer to carry a number of batteries and add to the load to carry, equipment failure—while all cameras may fail, some film camera problems (e.g., meter or rangefinder problems, failure of only some shutter speeds) can be worked around. As time passes, it is expected that more professional photographers will switch to digital.</div><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">In some cases where very high-resolution digital images of good quality are needed it may be advantageous to take large-format film photographs and digitise them. This allows the creation of very large<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_file" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Computer file">computer files</a> without speed or capacity disadvantages at picture-taking time.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-3" style="line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_Photography#cite_note-3" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[4]</a></sup></div><h3 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; font-weight: normal; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Digital_photography&action=edit&section=14" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Equivalent features">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Equivalent_features">Equivalent features</span></h3><dl style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dt style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Image noise / grain</dt>
</dl><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Noise in a digital camera's image is remarkably similar to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_grain" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Film grain">film grain</a> in a film camera. At high <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Film speed">ISO</a> levels (film speed) the grain/noise becomes more apparent in the final image. Although film ISO levels can be lower than digital ISO levels (25 and 50 respectively), digital settings can be changed quickly according to requirements, while film must be physically replaced and protected from all light during such replacement. Additionally, image <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noise_reduction" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Noise reduction">noise reduction</a> techniques can be used to remove noise from digital images and film grain is fixed. From an artistic point of view, film grain and image noise may be desirable when creating a specific <i>mood</i> for an image. Modern digital cameras have comparable noise/grain at the same ISO as film cameras. Some digital cameras though, do exhibit a pattern in the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image_noise" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Image noise">digital noise</a> that is not found on film.</div><dl style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dt style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Speed of use</dt>
</dl><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Previously digital cameras had a longer start-up delay compared to film cameras, i.e., the delay from when they are turned on until they are ready to take the first shot, but this is no longer the case for modern digital cameras with start-up times under 1/4 second (0.15 seconds for the Nikon D90).<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-4" style="line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_Photography#cite_note-4" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[5]</a></sup> Similarly, the amount of time needed to write the data for a digital picture to the memory card is now comparable to the amount of time it takes to wind the film on a film camera, at least with modern digital cameras and modern fast memory cards.<sup class="Template-Fact" style="line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources from September 2009">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Both digital cameras and film cameras have <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shutter_lag" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Shutter lag">a small delay</a> between when the shutter button is pressed and when the picture is taken – this is the time necessary to autofocus the lens and compute and set the exposure. (This shutter delay is practically zero for SLR and the best DSLR cameras.)</div><dl style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dt style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Frame rate</dt>
</dl><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">The Nikon D3 can take still photographs at 11 frames per second; the fastest film SLR could shoot 14 frames per second (Canon F1-n with a super high speed motor, but fewer than 100 were constructed for the 1984 Summer Olympics<sup class="Template-Fact" style="line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources from November 2010">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>). The Nikon F5 is limited to 36 continuous frames (the length of the film) while the Canon EOS-1D Mark III is able to take about 110 high definition <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JPEG" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="JPEG">JPEG</a> images before its <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buffer_(computer_science)" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Buffer (computer science)">buffer</a> must be cleared and the remaining space on the <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Storage_media" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Storage media">storage media</a> can be used. Even <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bridge_camera" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Bridge camera">Bridge camera</a> such as Fujifilm FinePix HS10 has burst mode 10 frame/s and Panasonic Lumix DMC-FZ100 has 11 frame/s.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-5" style="line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_Photography#cite_note-5" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[6]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-6" style="line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_Photography#cite_note-6" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[7]</a></sup> Moreover FinePix HS10 can take movies at 1000 frame/s at 224x64 pixels with no sound.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-7" style="line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_Photography#cite_note-7" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[8]</a></sup></div><dl style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dt style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Image longevity</dt>
</dl><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Film and prints can fade, but digital images can potentially last unchanged forever. However, the media on which the digital images are stored can decay or become corrupt, leading to a loss of image integrity. Film and digital media should be stored under archival conditions for maximum longevity. Without backup it is easier to lose huge amounts of digital data, for example by accidental deletion of folders, or by failure of a mass storage device. In comparison, each generation of copies of film negatives and transparencies is degraded compared to its parent. Film images can easily be converted to digital (by using a digital film scanner for example) with some possible loss of quality.</div><dl style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dt style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Colour reproduction</dt>
</dl><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Colour reproduction (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamut" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Gamut">gamut</a>) is dependent on the type and quality of film or sensor used and the quality of the optical system and film processing. Different films and sensors have different color sensitivity; the photographer needs to understand his equipment, the light conditions, and the media used to ensure accurate colour reproduction. Many digital cameras offer RAW format (sensor data), which makes it possible to choose color space in the development stage regardless of camera settings; in effect, the scene itself is stored as far as the sensor allows, and can to some extent be "rephotographed" with different color balance, exposure, etc. Although RAW format can be used, the sensor and the camera's dynamics can only capture in the GAMUT that the system will allow, and when that image is transferred for reproduction on any device, the best possible gamut that the person viewing the image will see is the gamut of the end device. For a monitor, it would be the screen's gamut. For a photographic print, it will be the gamut of the device that printed the image on the paper. Color Gamut or Color Space is an abstract term for describing an area where points of color fit in a three dimensional space. You might more easily picture this as different shaped/sized boxes whereby one box may not fit into another and therefore, what does not fit gets clipped off.</div><h3 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; font-weight: normal; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Digital_photography&action=edit&section=15" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: A comparison of frame aspect ratios">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="A_comparison_of_frame_aspect_ratios">A comparison of frame aspect ratios</span></h3><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">A typical digital camera's aspect ratio is 1.33 (4:3), the same as today's <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NTSC" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="NTSC">NTSC</a> or <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PAL" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="PAL">PAL</a>/<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SECAM" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="SECAM">SECAM</a> TVs or earliest movies. However, a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/135_film" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="135 film">35 mm</a> picture's aspect ratio is 1.5 (3:2). Several new digital cameras take photos in either ratio, and nearly all digital SLRs take pictures in a 3:2 ratio as they usually use lenses designed for 35 mm film (<a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olympus_company" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Olympus company">Olympus</a> and <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panasonic" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Panasonic">Panasonic</a> digital SLRs are notable exceptions). Some photo labs print photos on 4:3 ratio paper, as well as the existing 3:2. In 2005 Panasonic launched the first consumer camera with a native aspect ratio of 16:9, matching <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HDTV" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="HDTV">HDTV</a>. This is similar to a 7:4 aspect ratio, which was a common size for APS film. Different aspect ratios is one of the reasons consumers have cropping issues when printing digital photos, or film photos. Moreover, the majority of digital cameras take an aspect ratio of 4:3, which translates to a size of 4.5" x 6.0". This translates into losing a half an inch when printing on the "standard" size of 4" x 6", an aspect ratio of 3:2. Similar cropping occurs when printing on other sizes, i.e., 5"x7", 8"x10", or 11"x14". The easy way to see if the aspect ratio you want fits is to divide the length and width. If these match, there is no cropping of the original image. For example, an 8"x12" has the same aspect ratio as a 4"x6" or a 12"x18", because 12 divided by 8 is 1.5, the same aspect ratio as a 4"x6", which is also 1.5.</div><h2 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 19px; font-weight: normal; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.6em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Digital_photography&action=edit&section=16" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Market impact">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Market_impact">Market impact</span></h2><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">In late 2002, 2 megapixel cameras were available in the United States for less than $100, with some 1 megapixel cameras for under $60. At the same time, many discount stores with photo labs introduced a "digital front end", allowing consumers to obtain true chemical prints (as opposed to ink-jet prints) in an hour. These prices were similar to those of prints made from film negatives. However, because digital images have a different aspect ratio than 35 mm film images, people have started to realize that 4x6 inch prints crop some of the image off the print. Some photofinishers have started offering prints with the same aspect ratio as the digital cameras record.</div><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">In July 2003, digital cameras entered the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disposable_camera" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Disposable camera">disposable camera</a> market with the release of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ritz_Dakota_Digital" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Ritz Dakota Digital">Ritz Dakota Digital</a>, a 1.2 megapixel (1280 x 960) CMOS-based digital camera costing only $11 (USD). Following the familiar single-use concept long in use with film cameras, the Dakota Digital was intended to be used by a consumer one time only. When the pre-programmed 25 picture limit is reached, the camera is returned to the store, and the consumer receives back prints and a CD-ROM with their photos. The camera is then refurbished and resold. Since the introduction of the Dakota Digital, a number of similar single-use digital cameras have appeared. Most of the various single-use digital cameras are nearly identical to the original Dakota Digital regarding specifications and functionality, although a few include superior specifications and more advanced functions (such as higher image resolutions and LCD screens). Most, if not all, of these single-use digital cameras cost less than $20 (USD), not including processing fees. However, the huge demand for complex digital cameras at competitive prices has often resulted in manufacturing shortcuts, evidenced by a large increase in customer complaints over camera malfunctions, high parts prices, and short service life. Some digital cameras offer only a 90-day warranty.</div><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Prices of 35mm <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compact_camera" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Compact camera">compact cameras</a> have dropped with manufacturers further <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outsourcing" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Outsourcing">outsourcing</a> to countries such as China. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kodak" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Kodak">Kodak</a> announced in January 2004 that they would no longer sell Kodak-branded film cameras in the <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Developed_world" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Developed world">developed world</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-8" style="line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_Photography#cite_note-8" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[9]</a></sup> In January 2006, Nikon followed suit and announced they would stop production of all but two models of their film cameras. They will continue to produce the low-end<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikon_FM10" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Nikon FM10">Nikon FM10</a>, and the high-end <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikon_F6" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Nikon F6">Nikon F6</a>. In the same month, Konica Minolta announced it was pulling out of the camera business altogether. The price of 35mm and APS compact cameras have dropped, probably due to direct competition from digital and the resulting growth of the offer of second-hand film cameras.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-9" style="line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_Photography#cite_note-9" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[10]</a></sup> Pentax have reduced production of film cameras but not halted it.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-10" style="line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_Photography#cite_note-10" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[11]</a></sup> The technology has improved so rapidly that one of Kodak's film cameras was discontinued before it was awarded a "camera of the year" award later in the year.</div><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Since 2002, digital cameras have outsold film cameras. However, the use of 35mm cameras is greater in developing countries.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-11" style="line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_Photography#cite_note-11" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[12]</a></sup> In Guatemala, for example, extremely high import duties on all digital products serves to encourage sales and use of film cameras.</div><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">The decline in film camera sales has also led to a decline in purchases of film for such cameras. In November 2004, a German division of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agfa-Gevaert" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Agfa-Gevaert">Agfa-Gevaert</a>, AgfaPhoto, split off. Within six months it filed for bankruptcy . Konica Minolta Photo Imaging, Inc. ended production of Color film and paper worldwide by March 31, 2007. In addition, by 2005, Kodak employed less than a third of the employees it had twenty years earlier. It is not known if these job losses in the film industry have been offset in the digital image industry.</div><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">In addition, digital photography has resulted in some positive market impacts as well. The increasing popularity of products such as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_photo_frame" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Digital photo frame">digital photo frames</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canvas_print" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Canvas print">canvas prints</a> is a direct result of the increasing popularity of digital photography.</div><div class="thumb tright" style="background-color: white; clear: right; float: right; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 1.3em; margin-left: 1.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><div class="thumbinner" style="background-color: #f9f9f9; border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; font-size: 12px; min-width: 100px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-top: 3px !important; text-align: center; width: 252px;"><a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tribunebackground02192006.JPG" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="" class="thumbimage" height="167" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Tribunebackground02192006.JPG/250px-Tribunebackground02192006.JPG" style="background-color: white; border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-color: initial; border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; font-size: 11px; line-height: 1.4em; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-top: 3px !important; text-align: left;"><div class="magnify" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; float: right;"><a class="internal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tribunebackground02192006.JPG" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; color: #0645ad; display: block; text-decoration: none;" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="http://bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.18/common/images/magnify-clip.png" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; border-width: initial; display: block; vertical-align: middle;" width="15" /></a></div>An example of digital photography. This photo was taken and made into a digital print in less than 5 minutes.</div></div></div><h2 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 19px; font-weight: normal; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.6em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Digital_photography&action=edit&section=17" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Social impact">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Social_impact">Social impact</span></h2><table class="metadata plainlinks ambox ambox-content ambox-Original_research" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(242, 133, 0); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 10px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; color: black; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; margin-top: 0px;"><tbody>
<tr><td class="mbox-image" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 2px; text-align: center;"><div style="width: 52px;"><img alt="" height="40" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/f4/Ambox_content.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" width="40" /></div></td><td class="mbox-text" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; padding-bottom: 0.25em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.25em; width: 617px;">This section <b>may contain <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; color: #0645ad; padding-bottom: 0px !important; padding-left: 0px !important; padding-right: 0px !important; padding-top: 0px !important; text-decoration: none;" title="Wikipedia:No original research">original research</a></b>. Please <a class="external text" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Digital_photography&action=edit" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: url(data:image/png; background-origin: initial; background-position: 0% 0%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #3366bb; padding-bottom: 0px !important; padding-left: 0px !important; padding-right: 13px; padding-top: 0px !important; text-decoration: none;">improve it</a> by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; color: #0645ad; padding-bottom: 0px !important; padding-left: 0px !important; padding-right: 0px !important; padding-top: 0px !important; text-decoration: none;" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verifying</a> the claims made and adding<a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:References" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; color: #0645ad; padding-bottom: 0px !important; padding-left: 0px !important; padding-right: 0px !important; padding-top: 0px !important; text-decoration: none;" title="Wikipedia:References">references</a>. Statements consisting only of original research may be removed. More details may be available on the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talk:Digital_photography" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; color: #0645ad; padding-bottom: 0px !important; padding-left: 0px !important; padding-right: 0px !important; padding-top: 0px !important; text-decoration: none;" title="Talk:Digital photography">talk page</a>. <small><i>(January 2009)</i></small></td></tr>
</tbody></table><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Throughout the history of photography, technological advances in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optics" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Optics">optics</a>, camera production, developing, and imaging have had an effect on the way people view images. Up until 1960, most printed photographs were black and white. Cameras that could print colour film began to be popular in the 1960s, particularly with the introduction of the Polaroid camera invented by Edwin Land, which could print out a colour film print directly from the camera, within a few minutes of taking the picture. Up until the advent of the digital camera, amateur photographers could either buy print film for their camera, or slide film. If they purchased slide film, the resulting slides could be viewed using a slide projector. Digital photography began to be available in the early 2000s. The simultaneous increased use of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Internet">Internet</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Email" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Email">email</a>, relatively cheap computers and digital cameras led to a tremendous increase in the number of photographic images in digital formats.</div><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">In the early part of the 21st century, the dominant method of viewing still images has been on computers and, to a lesser extent, on <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cellular_phones" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Cellular phones">cellular phones</a> (although people still make and look at prints). These factors have led to a decrease in film and film camera sales and film processing, and has had a dramatic effect on companies such as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fujifilm" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Fujifilm">Fuji</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kodak" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Kodak">Kodak</a>, and <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agfa" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Agfa">Agfa</a>. In addition, many stores that used to offer photofinishing services or sell film no longer do, and those that do have seen a tremendous decline.</div><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Photographic images have always been prone to fading and loss of image quality due to sun exposure or improper storage of film negatives, slides, and prints. Since digital images are stored as data on a computer, the image never loses visual quality, detail, or fidelity as long as the digital media remains intact. The only way to ruin a digital image is to delete the image file, corrupt or re-write some of the image file's data, or damage or destroy the electronic storage media (<a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hard_drive" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Hard drive">hard drive</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disk_storage" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Disk storage">disk</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CD-ROM" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="CD-ROM">CD-ROM</a>, flash card, etc.) that contains the file. As with all computer files, making backups is the most effective way of ensuring a digital image can be recovered.</div><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Of growing concern for both archivists and historians is the relative non-permanence or transitory nature of digital media. Unlike film and print, which are tangible and immediately accessible to a person, storage of digital images is ever-changing with old media and decoding software becoming obsoleted or inaccessible by new technologies. Historians are concerned that we are creating a historical void where information and details about an era will have been lost within either failed or inaccessible digital media. It is recommended that both professional and amateur users develop strategies for migrating stored digital images from old technologies to new.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-12" style="line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_Photography#cite_note-12" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[13]</a></sup> Scrapbookers who may have used film for creating artistic and personal memoirs may need to modify their approach to digital photobooks to personalise them and retain the special qualities of traditional photo albums.</div><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">It is likely that film will never again be purchased and used on the scale it was for most of the 20th century. However, it probably will not disappear altogether. At its advent in the early 19th century, many believed photography would supplant the painting of portraits and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landscape" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Landscape">landscapes</a>. In the same way that <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acrylic_paint" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Acrylic paint">acrylic</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oil_paint" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Oil paint">oil paint</a> are still dominant media in use by artists and hobbyists, it is likely that photographic film and equipment will remain an option for enthusiasts. It is also important to note that the differences between film and digital photography are far less significant than the differences between painting and film photography.</div><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">The <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_wide_web" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="World wide web">web</a> has been a popular medium for storing and sharing photos ever since the first photograph was published on the web by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tim_Berners-Lee" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Tim Berners-Lee">Tim Berners-Lee</a> in 1992 (an image of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CERN" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="CERN">CERN</a> house band <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Les_Horribles_Cernettes" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Les Horribles Cernettes">Les Horribles Cernettes</a>). Today popular sites such as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flickr" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Flickr">Flickr</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Picasa" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Picasa">Picasa</a> and <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PhotoBucket" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="PhotoBucket">PhotoBucket</a> are used by millions of people to share their pictures.</div><h2 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 19px; font-weight: normal; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.6em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Digital_photography&action=edit&section=18" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Recent research and innovation">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Recent_research_and_innovation">Recent research and innovation</span></h2><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Research and development continues to refine the lighting, optics, sensors, processing, storage, display, and software used in digital photography. Here are a few examples.</div><ul style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; list-style-image: url(data:image/png; list-style-type: square; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 1.5em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.3em; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3D_models" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="3D models">3D models</a> can be created from collections of normal images. The resulting scene can be viewed from novel viewpoints, but creating the model is very computationally intensive. An example is<a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_Live_Labs_Photosynth" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Microsoft Live Labs Photosynth">Microsoft's Photosynth</a>, which provides some models of famous places as examples.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-13" style="line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_Photography#cite_note-13" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[14]</a></sup></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_dynamic_range_imaging" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="High dynamic range imaging">High dynamic range</a> cameras and displays are commercially available. Sensors with dynamic range in excess of 1,000,000:1 are in development, and software is also available to combine multiple non-HDR images (shot with different <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exposure_(photography)" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Exposure (photography)">exposures</a>) into an HDR image.</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motion_blur" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Motion blur">Motion blur</a> can be dramatically removed by a <a class="new" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Flutter_shutter&action=edit&redlink=1" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #ba0000; text-decoration: none;" title="Flutter shutter (page does not exist)">flutter shutter</a> (a flickering shutter that adds a signature to the blur, which postprocessing recognizes).<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-14" style="line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_Photography#cite_note-14" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[15]</a></sup> It is not yet commercially available.</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">An object's <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Specular_reflection" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Specular reflection">specular reflection</a> can be captured using computer controlled lights and sensors. This is needed to create attractive images of <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oil_paintings" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Oil paintings">oil paintings</a>, for instance. It is not yet commercially available, but is starting to be used by museums.</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dust_reduction_system" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Dust reduction system">Dust reduction systems</a> to help keep dust off of image sensors, originally introduced only by a few cameras like Olympus DSLRs, have now become standard in most models and brands.</li>
</ul><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Other areas of progress include improved sensors, more powerful software, enlarged-<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamut" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Gamut">gamut</a> displays, and computer controlled lighting.</div>John Michael Acehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16447213303343013873noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1050591295065099165.post-2102989658108246712011-10-28T20:29:00.001-07:002011-10-28T20:29:14.792-07:00Zone System<span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px;"></span><br />
<div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">The <b>Zone System</b> is a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photography" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Photography">photographic</a> technique for determining optimal <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photographic_film" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Photographic film">film</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exposure_(photography)" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Exposure (photography)">exposure</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photographic_processing" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Photographic processing">development</a>, formulated by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ansel_Adams" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Ansel Adams">Ansel Adams</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fred_R._Archer" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Fred R. Archer">Fred Archer</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-0" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zone_System#cite_note-0" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>1<span>]</span></a></sup> Adams described how the Zone System was developed: "I take this opportunity to restate that the Zone System is not an invention of mine; it is a codification of the principles of sensitometry, worked out by Fred Archer and myself at the Art Center School in Los Angeles, around 1939-40."<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-1" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zone_System#cite_note-1" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>2<span>]</span></a></sup></div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;"><br />
The technique is based on the late 19th century <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sensitometry" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Sensitometry">sensitometry</a> studies of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hurter_and_Driffield" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Hurter and Driffield">Hurter and Driffield</a>. The Zone System provides photographers with a systematic method of precisely defining the relationship between the way they visualize the photographic subject and the final results. Although it originated with <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black-and-white" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Black-and-white">black-and-white</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sheet_film" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Sheet film">sheet film</a>, the Zone System is also applicable to roll film, both black-and-white and color, <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Negative_film" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Negative film">negative</a>and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reversal_film" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Reversal film">reversal</a>, and to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_photography" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Digital photography">digital photography</a>.</div><table class="toc" id="toc" style="background-color: #f9f9f9; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; font-size: 12px; padding-bottom: 5px; padding-left: 5px; padding-right: 5px; padding-top: 5px;"><tbody>
<tr><td><div id="toctitle" style="direction: ltr; text-align: center;"><h2 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; border-width: initial; color: black; display: inline; font-size: 12px; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0.6em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; width: auto;">Contents</h2> <span class="toctoggle" style="font-size: 11px;"> [<a class="internal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zone_System#" id="togglelink" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">hide</a>] </span></div><ul style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-image: none; list-style-type: none; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.3em; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left;"><li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zone_System#Principles" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Principles</span></a><ul style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-image: none; list-style-type: none; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 2em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left;"><li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-2" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zone_System#Visualization" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Visualization</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zone_System#Exposure_metering" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">1.2</span> <span class="toctext">Exposure metering</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zone_System#Exposure_zones" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">1.3</span> <span class="toctext">Exposure zones</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-5" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zone_System#Zones.2C_the_physical_world_and_the_print" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">1.4</span> <span class="toctext">Zones, the physical world and the print</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zone_System#Zones_as_tone_and_texture" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">1.5</span> <span class="toctext">Zones as tone and texture</span></a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-7" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zone_System#Technique" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Technique</span></a><ul style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-image: none; list-style-type: none; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 2em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left;"><li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-8" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zone_System#Effective_film_speed" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Effective film speed</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-9" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zone_System#Exposure" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">2.2</span> <span class="toctext">Exposure</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-10" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zone_System#Development" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">2.3</span> <span class="toctext">Development</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-11" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zone_System#Additional_darkroom_processes" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">2.4</span> <span class="toctext">Additional darkroom processes</span></a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-12" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zone_System#Application_to_other_media" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Application to other media</span></a><ul style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-image: none; list-style-type: none; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 2em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left;"><li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-13" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zone_System#Roll_film" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">3.1</span> <span class="toctext">Roll film</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-14" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zone_System#Color_film" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">3.2</span> <span class="toctext">Color film</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-15" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zone_System#Digital_photography" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">3.3</span> <span class="toctext">Digital photography</span></a><ul style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-image: none; list-style-type: none; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 2em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left;"><li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-16" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zone_System#Histograms" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">3.3.1</span> <span class="toctext">Histograms</span></a></li>
</ul></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-17" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zone_System#Misconceptions_and_Criticisms" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Misconceptions and Criticisms</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-18" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zone_System#Notes" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">Notes</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-19" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zone_System#See_also" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-20" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zone_System#References" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-21" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zone_System#Further_reading" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">8</span> <span class="toctext">Further reading</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-22" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zone_System#External_links" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">9</span> <span class="toctext">External links</span></a></li>
</ul></td></tr>
</tbody></table><h2 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; color: black; font-size: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.6em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Zone_System&action=edit&section=1" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Principles">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Principles">Principles</span></h2><h3 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; color: black; font-size: 17px; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Zone_System&action=edit&section=2" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Visualization">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Visualization">Visualization</span></h3><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">An expressive image involves the arrangement and rendering of various scene elements according to photographer’s desire. Achieving the desired image involves <i>image management</i> (placement of the camera, choice of lens, and possibly the use of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/View_camera#Movements" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="View camera">camera movements</a>) and control of <i>image values</i>. The Zone System is concerned with control of image values, ensuring that light and dark values are rendered as desired. Anticipation of the final result before making the exposure is known as <i>visualization</i>.</div><h3 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; color: black; font-size: 17px; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Zone_System&action=edit&section=3" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Exposure metering">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Exposure_metering">Exposure metering</span></h3><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Almost any scene of photographic interest contains elements of different <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luminance" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Luminance">luminance</a>; consequently, the “exposure” actually is many different exposures. The exposure time is the same for all elements, but the image <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illuminance" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Illuminance">illuminance</a> varies with the luminance of each subject element.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Exposure is often determined using a reflected-light<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-2" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zone_System#cite_note-2" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>3<span>]</span></a></sup> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light_meter" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Light meter">exposure meter</a>. The earliest meters measured overall average luminance; <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light_meter#Exposure_meter_calibration" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Light meter">meter calibration</a> was established to give satisfactory exposures for typical outdoor scenes. However, if the part of a scene that is metered includes large areas of unusually high or low reflectance, or unusually large areas of highlight or shadow, the “effective” average reflectance<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-3" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zone_System#cite_note-3" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>4<span>]</span></a></sup> may differ substantially from that of a “typical” scene, and the rendering may not be as desired.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">An averaging meter cannot distinguish between a subject of uniform luminance and one that consists of light and dark elements. When exposure is determined from average luminance measurements, the exposure of any given scene element depends on the relationship of its reflectance to the effective average reflectance. For example, a dark object of 4% reflectance would be given a different exposure in a scene of 20% effective average reflectance than it would be given in a scene of 12% reflectance. In a sunlit outdoor scene, the exposure for the dark object would also depend on whether the object was in sunlight or shade. Depending on the scene and the photographer’s objective, any of the previous exposures might be acceptable. However, in some situations, the photographer might wish to specifically control the rendering of the dark object; with overall average metering, this is difficult if not impossible. When it is important to control the rendering of specific scene elements, alternative metering techniques may be required.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">It is possible to make a meter reading of an individual scene element, but the exposure indicated by the meter will render that element as a medium gray; in the case of a dark object, that result is usually not what is desired. Even when metering individual scene elements, some adjustment of the indicated exposure is often needed if the metered scene element is to be rendered as visualized.</div><h3 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; color: black; font-size: 17px; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Zone_System&action=edit&section=4" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Exposure zones">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Exposure_zones">Exposure zones</span></h3><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">In the Zone System, measurements are made of individual scene elements, and exposure is adjusted based on the photographer’s knowledge of what is being metered: a photographer knows the difference between freshly fallen snow and a black horse, while a meter does not. Much has been written on the Zone System, but the concept is very simple—render light subjects as light, and dark subjects as dark, according to the photographer’s visualization. The Zone System assigns numbers from 0 through 10<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-4" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zone_System#cite_note-4" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>5<span>]</span></a></sup> to different brightness values, with 0 representing black, 5 middle gray, and 10 pure white; these values are known as <i>zones</i>. To make zones easily distinguishable from other quantities, Adams and Archer used Roman rather than Arabic numerals. Strictly speaking, zones refer to exposure,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-5" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zone_System#cite_note-5" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>6<span>]</span></a></sup> with a Zone V exposure (the meter indication) resulting in a mid-tone rendering in the final image. Each zone differs from the preceding or following zone by a factor of two, so that a Zone I exposure is twice that of Zone 0, and so forth. A one-zone change is equal to one stop,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-6" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zone_System#cite_note-6" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>7<span>]</span></a></sup> corresponding to standard aperture and shutter controls on a camera. Evaluating a scene is particularly easy with a meter that indicates in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exposure_value" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Exposure value">exposure value</a>(EV), because a change of one EV is equal to a change of one zone.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Many small- and medium-format cameras include provision for <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exposure_compensation" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Exposure compensation">exposure compensation</a>; this feature works well with the Zone System, especially if the camera includes spot metering, but obtaining proper results requires careful metering of individual scene elements and making appropriate adjustments.</div><h3 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; color: black; font-size: 17px; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Zone_System&action=edit&section=5" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Zones, the physical world and the print">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Zones.2C_the_physical_world_and_the_print">Zones, the physical world and the print</span></h3><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">The relationship between the physical scene and the print is established by characteristics of the negative and the print. Exposure and development of the negative are usually determined so that a properly exposed negative will yield an acceptable print on a specific photographic paper.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Although zones directly relate to exposure, visualization relates to the final result. A black-and-white photographic print represents the visual world as a series of tones ranging from black to white. Imagine all of the tonal values that can appear in a print, represented as a continuous gradation from black to white:</div><div class="center" style="text-align: center; width: 815px;"><div class="thumb tnone" style="background-color: transparent; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; width: auto;"><div class="thumbinner" style="background-color: #f9f9f9; border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; font-size: 12px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; min-width: 100px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-top: 3px !important; text-align: center; width: 882px;"><a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:ZoneSystem-Gradient.png" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="" class="thumbimage" height="80" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c4/ZoneSystem-Gradient.png" style="background-color: white; border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-color: initial; border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; border-width: initial; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; vertical-align: middle;" width="880" /></a><div class="thumbcaption" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; font-size: 11px; line-height: 1.4em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-top: 3px !important; text-align: left;"><div class="magnify" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; float: right; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><a class="internal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:ZoneSystem-Gradient.png" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; color: #0645ad; display: block; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-decoration: none;" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="http://bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.18/common/images/magnify-clip.png" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; border-width: initial; display: block; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; vertical-align: middle;" width="15" /></a></div>Full Tonal Gradation</div></div></div></div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">From this starting point, zones are formed by:</div><ul style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-image: url(data:image/png; list-style-type: square; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 1.5em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.3em; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Dividing the tonal gradation into eleven equal sections.</li>
</ul><div class="center" style="text-align: center; width: 815px;"><div class="thumb tnone" style="background-color: transparent; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; width: auto;"><div class="thumbinner" style="background-color: #f9f9f9; border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; font-size: 12px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; min-width: 100px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-top: 3px !important; text-align: center; width: 882px;"><a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:ZoneSystem-Gradient-lines.png" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="" class="thumbimage" height="80" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/92/ZoneSystem-Gradient-lines.png" style="background-color: white; border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-color: initial; border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; border-width: initial; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; vertical-align: middle;" width="880" /></a><div class="thumbcaption" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; font-size: 11px; line-height: 1.4em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-top: 3px !important; text-align: left;"><div class="magnify" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; float: right; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><a class="internal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:ZoneSystem-Gradient-lines.png" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; color: #0645ad; display: block; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-decoration: none;" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="http://bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.18/common/images/magnify-clip.png" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; border-width: initial; display: block; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; vertical-align: middle;" width="15" /></a></div>Eleven-Step Gradation</div></div></div></div><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><b>Note:</b> <i>You may need to adjust the brightness and contrast of your monitor to see the gradations at the dark and light end of the scales.</i></dd></dl><ul style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-image: url(data:image/png; list-style-type: square; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 1.5em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.3em; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Blending each section into one tone that represents all the tonal values in that section.</li>
</ul><table align="center" style="-webkit-border-horizontal-spacing: 0px; -webkit-border-vertical-spacing: 0px; font-size: 13px;"><caption>Eleven Symbolic Tones</caption><tbody>
<tr style="height: 3em;"><td style="background-color: black; border-bottom-color: black; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: black; border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: black; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: black; border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; width: 3em;"></td><td style="background-color: #1a1a1a; border-bottom-color: black; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: black; border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: black; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: black; border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; width: 3em;"></td><td style="background-color: #333333; border-bottom-color: black; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: black; border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: black; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: black; border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; width: 3em;"></td><td style="background-color: #4d4d4d; border-bottom-color: black; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: black; border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: black; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: black; border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; width: 3em;"></td><td style="background-color: #666666; border-bottom-color: black; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: black; border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: black; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: black; border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; width: 3em;"></td><td style="background-color: grey; border-bottom-color: black; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: black; border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: black; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: black; border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; width: 3em;"></td><td style="background-color: #999999; border-bottom-color: black; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: black; border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: black; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: black; border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; width: 3em;"></td><td style="background-color: #b3b3b3; border-bottom-color: black; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: black; border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: black; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: black; border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; width: 3em;"></td><td style="background-color: #cccccc; border-bottom-color: black; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: black; border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: black; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: black; border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; width: 3em;"></td><td style="background-color: #e6e6e6; border-bottom-color: black; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: black; border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: black; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: black; border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; width: 3em;"></td><td style="background-color: white; border-bottom-color: black; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: black; border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: black; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: black; border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; width: 3em;"></td></tr>
</tbody></table><ul style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-image: url(data:image/png; list-style-type: square; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 1.5em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.3em; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Numbering each section with Roman numerals from 0 for the black section to X for the white one.</li>
</ul><table align="center" style="-webkit-border-horizontal-spacing: 0px; -webkit-border-vertical-spacing: 0px; font-size: 13px; text-align: center;"><caption>The Zone Scale</caption><tbody>
<tr style="color: white; height: 3em;"><td style="background-color: black; border-bottom-color: black; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: black; border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: black; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: black; border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; width: 3em;">0</td><td style="background-color: #1a1a1a; border-bottom-color: black; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: black; border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: black; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: black; border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; width: 3em;">I</td><td style="background-color: #333333; border-bottom-color: black; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: black; border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: black; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: black; border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; width: 3em;">II</td><td style="background-color: #4d4d4d; border-bottom-color: black; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: black; border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: black; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: black; border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; width: 3em;">III</td><td style="background-color: #666666; border-bottom-color: black; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: black; border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: black; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: black; border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; width: 3em;">IV</td><td style="background-color: grey; border-bottom-color: black; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: black; border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: black; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: black; border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; font-size: 19px; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; width: 2em;">V</td><td style="background-color: #999999; border-bottom-color: black; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: black; border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: black; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: black; border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; width: 3em;">VI</td><td style="background-color: #b3b3b3; border-bottom-color: black; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: black; border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: black; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: black; border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; width: 3em;">VII</td><td style="background-color: #cccccc; border-bottom-color: black; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: black; border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: black; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: black; border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; color: black; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; width: 3em;">VIII</td><td style="background-color: #e6e6e6; border-bottom-color: black; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: black; border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: black; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: black; border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; color: black; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; width: 3em;">IX</td><td style="background-color: white; border-bottom-color: black; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: black; border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: black; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: black; border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; color: black; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; width: 3em;">X</td></tr>
</tbody></table><h3 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; color: black; font-size: 17px; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Zone_System&action=edit&section=6" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Zones as tone and texture">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Zones_as_tone_and_texture">Zones as tone and texture</span></h3><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Adams (1981, 52) distinguished among three different exposure scales for the negative:</div><ul style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-image: url(data:image/png; list-style-type: square; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 1.5em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.3em; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">The full range from black to white, represented by Zone 0 through Zone X.</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">The <i>dynamic range</i> comprising Zone I through Zone IX, which Adams considered to represent the darkest and lightest “useful” negative densities.</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">The <i>textural range</i> comprising Zone II through Zone VIII. This range of zones conveys a sense of texture and the recognition of substance.</li>
</ul><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">He noted that negatives can record detail through Zone XII and even higher, but that bringing this information within the exposure scale of the print is extremely difficult with normal processing.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Adams (1981, 60) described the zone scale and its relationship to typical scene elements:<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-7" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zone_System#cite_note-7" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>8<span>]</span></a></sup></div><table align="center" style="font-size: 13px;"><tbody>
<tr><th>Zone</th><th>Description</th></tr>
<tr style="height: 3em;"><td style="background-color: black; border-bottom-color: black; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: black; border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: black; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: black; border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; color: white; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; text-align: center; width: 3em;">0</td><td style="padding-left: 2em;">Pure black</td></tr>
<tr style="height: 3em;"><td style="background-color: #1a1a1a; border-bottom-color: black; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: black; border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: black; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: black; border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; color: white; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; text-align: center; width: 3em;">I</td><td style="padding-left: 2em;">Near black, with slight tonality but no texture</td></tr>
<tr style="height: 3em;"><td style="background-color: #333333; border-bottom-color: black; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: black; border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: black; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: black; border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; color: white; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; text-align: center; width: 3em;">II</td><td style="padding-left: 2em;">Textured black; the darkest part of the image in which slight detail is recorded</td></tr>
<tr style="height: 3em;"><td style="background-color: #4d4d4d; border-bottom-color: black; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: black; border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: black; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: black; border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; color: white; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; text-align: center; width: 3em;">III</td><td style="padding-left: 2em;">Average dark materials and low values showing adequate texture</td></tr>
<tr style="height: 3em;"><td style="background-color: #666666; border-bottom-color: black; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: black; border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: black; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: black; border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; color: white; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; text-align: center; width: 3em;">IV</td><td style="padding-left: 2em;">Average dark foliage, dark stone, or landscape shadows</td></tr>
<tr style="height: 3em;"><td style="background-color: grey; border-bottom-color: black; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: black; border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: black; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: black; border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; color: white; font-size: 19px; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; text-align: center; width: 3em;">V</td><td style="padding-left: 2em;">Middle gray: clear north sky; dark skin, average weathered wood</td></tr>
<tr style="height: 3em;"><td style="background-color: #999999; border-bottom-color: black; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: black; border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: black; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: black; border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; color: white; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; text-align: center; width: 3em;">VI</td><td style="padding-left: 2em;">Average Caucasian skin; light stone; shadows on snow in sunlit landscapes</td></tr>
<tr style="height: 3em;"><td style="background-color: #b3b3b3; border-bottom-color: black; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: black; border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: black; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: black; border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; text-align: center; width: 3em;">VII</td><td style="padding-left: 2em;">Very light skin; shadows in snow with acute side lighting</td></tr>
<tr style="height: 3em;"><td style="background-color: #cccccc; border-bottom-color: black; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: black; border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: black; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: black; border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; text-align: center; width: 3em;">VIII</td><td style="padding-left: 2em;">Lightest tone with texture: textured snow</td></tr>
<tr style="height: 3em;"><td style="background-color: #e6e6e6; border-bottom-color: black; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: black; border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: black; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: black; border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; text-align: center; width: 3em;">IX</td><td style="padding-left: 2em;">Slight tone without texture; glaring snow</td></tr>
<tr style="height: 3em;"><td style="background-color: white; border-bottom-color: black; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: black; border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: black; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: black; border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; text-align: center; width: 3em;">X</td><td style="padding-left: 2em;">Pure white: light sources and specular reflections</td></tr>
</tbody></table><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">For cinematography, in general, parts of the scene falling in Zone III will have textured black, and objects on Zone VII will have textured white. In other words, if the text on a piece of white paper is to be readable, light and expose the white so that it falls on Zone VII. This is a general rule of thumb. Some film stocks have steeper curves than others, and the cinematographer needs to know how each one handles all shades of black-to-white.</div><h2 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; color: black; font-size: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.6em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Zone_System&action=edit&section=7" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Technique">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Technique">Technique</span></h2><h3 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; color: black; font-size: 17px; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Zone_System&action=edit&section=8" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Effective film speed">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Effective_film_speed">Effective film speed</span></h3><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">The ISO standard for black-and-white negative film, ISO 6:1993, specifies development criteria that may differ from those used in practical photography (previous standards, such as ANSI PH2.5-1979, also specified chemistry and development technique). Consequently, the Zone System practitioner often must determine the speed for a particular combination of film, developer, and enlarger type; the speed determination is commonly based on Zone I. Although the method for determining speed for the Zone System is conceptually similar to the ISO method for determining speed, the Zone System speed is an <i>effective speed</i><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-8" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zone_System#cite_note-8" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>9<span>]</span></a></sup> rather than an ISO speed.</div><h3 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; color: black; font-size: 17px; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Zone_System&action=edit&section=9" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Exposure">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Exposure">Exposure</span></h3><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">A dark surface under a bright light can reflect the same amount of light as a light surface under dim light. The human eye would perceive the two as being very different but a light meter would measure only the amount of light reflected, and its recommended exposure would render either as Zone V. The Zone System provides a straightforward method for rendering these objects as the photographer desires. The key element in the scene is identified, and that element is <i>placed</i> on the desired zone; the other elements in the scene then <i>fall</i> where they may. With negative film, exposure often favors shadow detail; the procedure then is to</div><ol style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-image: none; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 3.2em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.3em; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Visualize the darkest area of the subject in which detail is required, and place it on Zone III. The exposure for Zone III is important, because if the exposure is insufficient, the image may not have satisfactory shadow detail. If the shadow detail is not recorded at the time of exposure, nothing can be done to add it later.</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Carefully meter the area visualized as Zone III and note the meter’s recommended exposure (the meter gives a Zone V exposure).</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Adjust the recommended exposure so that the area is placed on Zone III rather than Zone V. To do this, use an exposure two stops less than the meter’s recommendation.</li>
</ol><h3 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; color: black; font-size: 17px; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Zone_System&action=edit&section=10" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Development">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Development">Development</span></h3><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">For every combination of film, developer, and paper there is a “normal” development time that will allow a properly exposed negative to give a reasonable print. In many cases, this means that values in the print will display as recorded (e.g., Zone V as Zone V, Zone VI as Zone VI, and so on). In general, optimal negative development will be different for every type and grade of paper.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">It often is desirable for a print to exhibit a full range of tonal values; this may not be possible for a low-contrast scene if the negative is given normal development. However, the development can be increased to increase the negative contrast so that the full range of tones is available. This technique is known as <i>expansion</i>, and the development usually referred to as “plus” or “N+”. Criteria for plus development vary among different photographers; Adams used it to <i>raise</i> a Zone VII placement to Zone VIII in the print, and referred to it as “N + 1” development.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Conversely, if the negative for a high-contrast scene is given normal development, desired detail may be lost in either shadow or highlight areas, and the result may appear harsh. However, development can be reduced so that a scene element placed on Zone IX is rendered as Zone VIII in the print; this technique is known as <i>contraction</i>, and the development usually referred to as “minus” or “N−”. When the resulting change is one zone, it is usually called “N − 1” development.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">It sometimes is possible to make greater adjustments, using “N + 2” or “N − 2” development, and occasionally even beyond.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Development has the greatest effect on dense areas of the negative, so that the high values can be adjusted with minimal effect on the low values. The effect of expansion or contraction gradually decreases with tones darker than Zone VIII (or whatever value is used for control of high values).</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Specific times for N+ or N− developments are determined either from systematic tests, or from development tables provided by certain Zone System books.</div><h3 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; color: black; font-size: 17px; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Zone_System&action=edit&section=11" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Additional darkroom processes">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Additional_darkroom_processes">Additional darkroom processes</span></h3><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Adams generally used <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selenium_toning" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Selenium toning">selenium toning</a> when processing prints. Selenium toner acts as a preservative and can alter the color of a print, but Adams used it subtly, primarily because it can add almost a full zone to the tonal range of the final print, producing richer dark tones that still hold shadow detail. His book <i>The Print</i> described using the techniques of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dodging_and_burning" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Dodging and burning">dodging and burning</a> to selectively darken or lighten areas of the final print.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">The Zone System requires that every variable in photography, from exposure to darkroom production of the print, be calibrated and controlled. The print is the last link in a chain of events, no less important to the Zone System than exposure and development of the film. With practice, the photographer visualizes the final print before the shutter is released.</div><h2 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; color: black; font-size: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.6em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Zone_System&action=edit&section=12" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Application to other media">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Application_to_other_media">Application to other media</span></h2><h3 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; color: black; font-size: 17px; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Zone_System&action=edit&section=13" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Roll film">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Roll_film">Roll film</span></h3><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Unlike sheet film, in which each negative can be individually developed, an entire roll must be given the same development, so that N+ and N− development are normally unavailable.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-9" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zone_System#cite_note-9" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>10<span>]</span></a></sup> The key element in the scene is placed on the desired zone, and the rest of the scene falls where it will. Some contrast control is still available with the use of different paper grades. Adams (1981, 93–95) described use of the Zone System with roll film. In most cases, he recommended N − 1 development when a single roll was to be exposed under conditions of varying contrast, so that exposure could be sufficient to give adequate shadow detail but avoid excessive density and grain build-up in the highlights.</div><h3 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; color: black; font-size: 17px; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Zone_System&action=edit&section=14" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Color film">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Color_film">Color film</span></h3><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Because of color shifts, color film usually does not lend itself to variations in development time. Use of the Zone System with color film is similar to that with black-and-white roll film, except that the exposure range is somewhat less, so that there are fewer zones between black and white. The exposure scale of color reversal film is less than that of color negative film, and the procedure for exposure usually is different, favoring highlights rather than shadows; the shadow values then fall where they will. Whatever the exposure range, the meter indication results in a Zone V placement. Adams (1981, 95–97) described the application to color film, both negative and reversal.</div><h3 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; color: black; font-size: 17px; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Zone_System&action=edit&section=15" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Digital photography">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Digital_photography">Digital photography</span></h3><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">The Zone System can be used in digital photography just as in film photography; Adams (1981, xiii) himself anticipated the digital image. As with color reversal film, the normal procedure is to expose for the highlights and process for the shadows.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Until recently, digital sensors had a much narrower dynamic range than color film, which, in turn, has less range than monochrome film. But an increasing number of digital cameras have wider dynamic ranges. One of the first was <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fujifilm" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Fujifilm">Fujifilm</a>’s <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FinePix_S3_Pro" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="FinePix S3 Pro">FinePix S3 Pro</a> digital SLR, which has their proprietary “<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Super_CCD" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Super CCD">Super CCD</a> SR sensor” specifically developed to overcome the issue of limited dynamic range, using interstitial low-sensitivity photosites (pixels) to capture highlight details.<sup class="Template-Fact" style="line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources from May 2009">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charge-coupled_device" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Charge-coupled device">CCD</a> is thus able to expose at both low and high sensitivities within one shot by assigning a honeycomb of pixels to different intensities of light.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Greater scene contrast can be accommodated by making one or more exposures of the same scene using different exposure settings and then combining those images. It often suffices to make two exposures, one for the shadows, and one for the highlights; the images are then overlapped and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tone_mapping" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Tone mapping">blended appropriately</a><a class="external autonumber" href="http://www.luminous-landscape.com/tutorials/digital-blending.shtml" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: url(data:image/png; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #3366bb; padding-right: 13px; text-decoration: none;">[1]</a>, so that the resulting composite represents a wider range of colors and tones. Combining images is often easier if the <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_image_editing" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Digital image editing">image-editing</a> software includes features, such as the automatic layer alignment in Adobe <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photoshop" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Photoshop">Photoshop</a> CS3, that assist precise registration of multiple images. Even greater scene contrast can be handled by using more than two exposures and combining with a feature such as <a class="external text" href="http://www.luminous-landscape.com/tutorials/hdr.shtml" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: url(data:image/png; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #3366bb; padding-right: 13px; text-decoration: none;">Merge to HDR</a> in Photoshop CS2 and later.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">The tonal range of the final image depends on the characteristics of the display medium. Monitor <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contrast_ratio" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Contrast ratio">contrast</a> can vary significantly, depending on the type (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cathode_ray_tube" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Cathode ray tube">CRT</a>, <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LCD" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="LCD">LCD</a>, etc.), model, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_calibration" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Color calibration">calibration</a> (or lack thereof). A <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_printer" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Computer printer">computer printer</a>’s tonal output depends on the number of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ink" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Ink">inks</a> used and the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photographic_paper" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Photographic paper">paper</a> on which it is printed. Similarly, the density range of a traditional <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photographic_print" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Photographic print">photographic print</a> depends on the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_photographic_processes" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="List of photographic processes">processes</a> used as well as the paper characteristics.</div><h4 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; color: black; font-size: 15px; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Zone_System&action=edit&section=16" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Histograms">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Histograms">Histograms</span></h4><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Most high-end digital cameras allow viewing a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image_histogram" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Image histogram">histogram</a> of the tonal distribution of the captured image. This histogram, which shows the concentration of tones, running from dark on the left to light on the right, can be used to judge whether a full tonal range has been captured, or whether the exposure should be adjusted, such as by changing the <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exposure_time" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Exposure time">exposure time</a>, lens <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aperture" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Aperture">aperture</a>, or <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO_speed" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="ISO speed">ISO speed</a>, to ensure a tonally rich starting image.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Histograms_and_the_Zone_System_10-0" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zone_System#cite_note-Histograms_and_the_Zone_System-10" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>11<span>]</span></a></sup></div><h2 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; color: black; font-size: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.6em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Zone_System&action=edit&section=17" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Misconceptions and Criticisms">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Misconceptions_and_Criticisms">Misconceptions and Criticisms</span></h2><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">The Zone System gained an early reputation for being complex, difficult to understand, and impractical to apply to real-life shooting situations and equipment. Noted photographer <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andreas_Feininger" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Andreas Feininger">Andreas Feininger</a> wrote in 1976,</div><blockquote class="templatequote" style="margin-top: 0px;"><div>I deliberately omitted discussing the so-called Zone System of film exposure determination in this book because in my opinion it makes mountains out of molehills, complicates matters out of all proportions, does not produce any results that cannot be accomplished more easily with methods discussed in this text, and is a ritual if not a form of cult rather than a practical technical procedure.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-11" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zone_System#cite_note-11" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>12<span>]</span></a></sup></div></blockquote><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Much of the difficulty may have resulted from Adams’s early books, which he wrote without the assistance of a professional editor; he later conceded (Adams 1985, 325) that this was a mistake. Picker (1974) provided a concise and simple treatment that helped demystify the process. Adams’s later Photography Series published in the early 1980s (and written with the assistance of Robert Baker) also proved far more comprehensible to the average photographer.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">The Zone System has often been thought to apply only to certain materials, such as black-and-white sheet film and black-and-white photographic prints. Adams (1981, xii) suggested that when new materials become available, the Zone System is adapted rather than discarded. He anticipated the digital age, stating</div><blockquote class="templatequote" style="margin-top: 0px;"><div>I believe the electronic image will be the next major advance. Such systems will have their own inherent and inescapable structural characteristics, and the artist and functional practitioner will again strive to comprehend and control them.</div></blockquote><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Yet another misconception is that the Zone System emphasizes technique at the expense of creativity. Some practitioners have treated the Zone System as if it were an end in itself, but Adams made it clear that the Zone System was an <i>enabling</i> technique rather than the ultimate objective.</div>John Michael Acehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16447213303343013873noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1050591295065099165.post-29087742164307691192011-10-28T20:28:00.001-07:002011-10-28T20:28:14.466-07:00Science of Photography<span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px;"></span><br />
<div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">camera, its lenses, physical operation of the camera, electronic camera internals, and the process of developing <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photographic_film" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Photographic film">film</a> in order to take and develop pictures properly.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-0" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_of_photography#cite_note-0" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>1<span>]</span></a></sup></div><table class="toc" id="toc" style="background-color: #f9f9f9; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; font-size: 12px; padding-bottom: 5px; padding-left: 5px; padding-right: 5px; padding-top: 5px;"><tbody>
<tr><td><div id="toctitle" style="direction: ltr; text-align: center;"><h2 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; border-width: initial; color: black; display: inline; font-size: 12px; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0.6em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; width: auto;">Contents</h2> <span class="toctoggle" style="font-size: 11px;"> [<a class="internal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_of_photography#" id="togglelink" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">hide</a>] </span></div><ul style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-image: none; list-style-type: none; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.3em; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left;"><li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_of_photography#Law_of_Reciprocity" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Law of Reciprocity</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_of_photography#Lenses" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Lenses</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-3" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_of_photography#Motion_blur" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Motion blur</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-4" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_of_photography#Focus" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Focus</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-5" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_of_photography#Aberration" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">Aberration</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-6" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_of_photography#Film_grain_resolution" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">Film grain resolution</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-7" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_of_photography#Diffraction_limit" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">Diffraction limit</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-8" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_of_photography#Contribution_to_noise_.28grain.29" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">8</span> <span class="toctext">Contribution to noise (grain)</span></a><ul style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-image: none; list-style-type: none; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 2em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left;"><li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-9" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_of_photography#Quantum_efficiency" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">8.1</span> <span class="toctext">Quantum efficiency</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-10" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_of_photography#CCDs_and_other_photodiodes" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">8.2</span> <span class="toctext">CCDs and other photodiodes</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-11" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_of_photography#Photomultiplier_tubes" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">8.3</span> <span class="toctext">Photomultiplier tubes</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-12" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_of_photography#Aliasing" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">8.4</span> <span class="toctext">Aliasing</span></a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-13" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_of_photography#See_also" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">9</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-14" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_of_photography#References" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">10</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a></li>
</ul></td></tr>
</tbody></table><h2 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; color: black; font-size: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.6em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Science_of_photography&action=edit&section=1" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Law of Reciprocity">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Law_of_Reciprocity">Law of Reciprocity</span></h2><div class="rellink relarticle mainarticle" style="font-style: italic; margin-bottom: 0.5em; padding-left: 2em;">Main article: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reciprocity_(photography)" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Reciprocity (photography)">Reciprocity (photography)</a></div><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;">Exposure ∝ ApertureArea × ExposureTime × SceneLuminance</dd></dl><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">The law of reciprocity describes how light intensity and duration trade off to make an exposure—it defines the relationship between <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shutter_speed" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Shutter speed">shutter speed</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aperture" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Aperture">aperture</a>, for a given total <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exposure_(photography)" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Exposure (photography)">exposure</a>. Changes to any of these elements are often measured in units known as "stops"; a stop is equal to a factor of two.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Halving the amount light exposing the film can be achieved either by:</div><ol style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-image: none; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 3.2em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.3em; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Closing the aperture by one stop</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Decreasing the shutter time (increasing the shutter speed) by one stop</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Cutting the scene lighting by half</li>
</ol><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Likewise, doubling the amount of light exposing the film can be achieved by the opposite of one of these operations.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">The luminance of the scene, as measured on a reflected <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light_meter" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Light meter">light meter</a>, also affects the exposure proportionately. The amount of light required for proper exposure depends on the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Film speed">film speed</a>; which can be varied in stops or fractions of stops. With either of these changes, the aperture or shutter speed can be adjusted by an equal number of stops to get to a suitable exposure.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Light is most easily controlled through the use of the camera's aperture (measure in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F-number" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="F-number">f-stops</a>), but it can also be regulated by adjusting <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shutter_speed" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Shutter speed">shutter speed</a>. Using faster or slower <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photographic_film" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Photographic film">film</a> is not usually something that can be done quickly, at least using roll film. <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Large_format" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Large format">Large format</a> cameras use individual <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sheet_film" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Sheet film">sheets of film</a> and each sheet could be a different speed. Also, if you're using a larger format camera with a polaroid back, you can switch between backs containing different speed polaroids. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_camera" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Digital camera">Digital cameras</a> can easily adjust the film speed they are simulating by adjusting the <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exposure_index" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Exposure index">exposure index</a>, and many digital cameras can do so automatically in response to exposure measurements.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">For example, starting with an exposure of 1/60 at <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', Candara, Georgia, Calibri, Corbel, serif; font-style: italic;">f</span>/16, the depth-of-field could be made shallower by opening up the aperture to <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', Candara, Georgia, Calibri, Corbel, serif; font-style: italic;">f</span>/4, an increase in exposure of 4 stops. To compensate, the shutter speed would need to be increased as well by 4 stops, that is, adjust exposure time down to 1/1000. Closing down the aperture limits the resolution due to the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_of_photography#Diffraction_limit" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">diffraction limit</a>.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">The reciprocity law specifies the total exposure, but the response of a photographic material to a constant total exposure may not remain constant for very long exposures in very faint light, such as photographing a starry sky, or very short exposures in very bright light, such as photographing the sun. This is known as <i>reciprocity failure</i> of the material (film, paper, or sensor).</div><h2 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; color: black; font-size: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.6em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Science_of_photography&action=edit&section=2" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Lenses">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Lenses">Lenses</span></h2><div class="rellink relarticle mainarticle" style="font-style: italic; margin-bottom: 0.5em; padding-left: 2em;">Main article: <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photographic_lens" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Photographic lens">Photographic lens</a></div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">A photographic lens is usually composed of several <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lens_(optics)" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Lens (optics)">lens elements</a>, which combine to reduce the effects of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromatic_aberration" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Chromatic aberration">chromatic aberration</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coma_(optics)" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Coma (optics)">coma</a>,<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spherical_aberration" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Spherical aberration">spherical aberration</a>, and other <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aberration_in_optical_systems" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Aberration in optical systems">aberrations</a>. A simple example is the three-element <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cooke_triplet" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Cooke triplet">Cooke triplet</a>, still in use over a century after it was first designed, but many current photographic lenses are much more complex.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Most but not all aberrations can be reduced by using a smaller aperture. They can also be reduced dramatically by using an <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspheric_lens" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Aspheric lens">aspheric element</a>, but these are more complex to grind than spherical or cylindrical lenses. However, with modern manufacturing techniques the extra cost of manufacturing aspherical lenses is decreasing, and small aspherical lenses can now be made by molding, allowing their use in inexpensive consumer cameras. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fresnel_lens" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Fresnel lens">Fresnel lenses</a> are not used in cameras even though they are extremely light and cheap, because they produce poor image quality.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">All lens design is a compromise between numerous factors, not excluding cost. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoom_lens" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Zoom lens">Zoom lenses</a> (i.e. lenses of variable focal length) involve additional compromises and therefore normally do not match the performance of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prime_lens" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Prime lens">prime lenses</a>.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">When a camera lens is focused to project an object some distance away onto the film or detector, the objects that are closer in distance, relative to the distant object, are also <i>approximately</i> in focus. The range of distances that are nearly in focus is called the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_of_field" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Depth of field">depth of field</a>. Depth of field generally increases with decreasing aperture diameter (increasing f-number). The unfocused blur outside the depth of field is sometimes used for artistic effect in photography. The subjective appearance of this blur is known as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bokeh" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Bokeh">bokeh</a>.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">If the camera lens is focused at or beyond its <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperfocal_distance" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Hyperfocal distance">hyperfocal distance</a>, then the depth of field becomes large, covering everything from half the hyperfocal distance to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infinity" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Infinity">infinity</a>. This effect is used to make "<a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Focus_free_lens" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Focus free lens">focus free</a>" or fixed-focus cameras.</div><div class="rellink boilerplate seealso" style="font-style: italic; margin-bottom: 0.5em; padding-left: 2em;">See also: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circle_of_confusion" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Circle of confusion">Circle of confusion</a></div><h2 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; color: black; font-size: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.6em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Science_of_photography&action=edit&section=3" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Motion blur">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Motion_blur">Motion blur</span></h2><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Motion blur is caused when either the camera or the subject moves during the exposure. This causes a distinctive streaky appearance to the moving object or the entire picture (in the case of camera shake).</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Motion blur can be used artistically to create the feeling of speed or motion, as with running water. An example of this is the technique of "<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panning_(camera)" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Panning (camera)">panning</a>", where the camera is moved so it follows the subject, which is usually fast moving, such as a car. Done correctly, this will give an image of a clear subject, but the background will have motion blur, giving the feeling of movement. This is one of the more difficult photographic techniques to master, as the movement must be smooth, and at the correct speed. A subject that gets closer or further away from the camera may further cause focusing difficulties.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Light trails is another photographic effect where motion blur is used. Photographs of the lines of light visible in long exposure photos of roads at night are one example of effect.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-1" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_of_photography#cite_note-1" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>2<span>]</span></a></sup> This is caused by the cars moving along the road during the exposure. The same principle is used to create star trail photographs.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Generally, motion blur is something that is to be avoided, and this can be done in several different ways. The simplest way is to limit the shutter time so that there is very little movement of the image during the time the shutter is open. At longer <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Focal_length" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Focal length">focal lengths</a>, the same movement of the camera body will cause more motion of the image, so a shorter shutter time is needed. A commonly cited rule of thumb is that the shutter speed in seconds should be about the reciprocal of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/35_mm_equivalent_focal_length" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="35 mm equivalent focal length">35 mm equivalent focal length</a> of the lens in millimeters. For example, a 50 mm lens should be used at a minimum speed of 1/50 sec, and a 300 mm lens at 1/300 of a second. This can cause difficulties when used in low light scenarios, since exposure also decreases with shutter time.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Motion blur due to subject movement can usually be prevented by using a faster shutter speed. The exact shutter speed will depend on the speed at which the subject is moving. For example, a very fast shutter speed will be needed to "freeze" the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helicopter_rotor" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Helicopter rotor">rotors</a> of a helicopter, whereas a slower shutter speed will be sufficient to freeze a runner.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">A <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tripod_(photography)" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Tripod (photography)">tripod</a> may be used to avoid motion blur due to camera shake. This will stabilize the camera during the exposure. A tripod is recommended for exposure times more than about 1/15 seconds. There are additional techniques which, in conjunction with use of a tripod, ensure that the camera remains very still. These may employ use of a remote actuator, such as a cable release or <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrared" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Infrared">infrared</a> remote switch to activate the shutter, so as to avoid the movement normally caused when the shutter release button is pressed directly. The use of a "self timer" (a timed release mechanism that automatically trips the shutter release after an interval of time) can serve the same purpose. Most modern <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Single-lens_reflex_camera" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Single-lens reflex camera">single-lens reflex camera</a> (SLR) have a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mirror_lock-up" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Mirror lock-up">mirror lock-up</a> feature that eliminates the small amount of shake produced by the mirror flipping up.</div><h2 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; color: black; font-size: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.6em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Science_of_photography&action=edit&section=4" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Focus">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Focus">Focus</span></h2><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Focus_(optics)" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Focus (optics)">Focus</a> is the tendency for light rays to reach the same place on the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image_sensor" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Image sensor">image sensor</a> or film, independent of where they pass through the lens. For clear pictures, the focus is adjusted for distance, because at a different object distance the rays reach different parts of the lens with different angles. In modern photography, focusing is often accomplished automatically.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">The <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autofocus" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Autofocus">autofocus</a> system in modern <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Single-lens_reflex_camera" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Single-lens reflex camera">SLRs</a> use a <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Detector" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Detector">sensor</a> in the mirrorbox to measure contrast. The sensor's signal is analyzed by an <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Application-specific_integrated_circuit" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Application-specific integrated circuit">application-specific integrated circuit</a> (ASIC), and the ASIC tries to maximize the contrast pattern by moving lens elements. The ASICs in modern cameras also have special <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algorithms" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Algorithms">algorithms</a> for predicting motion, and other advanced features.</div><h2 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; color: black; font-size: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.6em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Science_of_photography&action=edit&section=5" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Aberration">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Aberration">Aberration</span></h2><div class="rellink relarticle mainarticle" style="font-style: italic; margin-bottom: 0.5em; padding-left: 2em;">Main article: <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aberration_in_optical_systems" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Aberration in optical systems">Aberration in optical systems</a></div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Aberrations are the blurring and distorting properties of an <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_system" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Optical system">optical system</a>. A high quality lens will produce a smaller amount of aberrations.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spherical_aberration" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Spherical aberration">Spherical aberration</a> occurs due to the increased <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Refraction" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Refraction">refraction</a> of light rays that occurs when rays strike a lens, or a reflection of light rays that occurs when rays strike a mirror near its edge in comparison with those that strike nearer the center. This is dependent on the focal length of a spherical lens and the distance from its center. It is compensated by designing a multi-lens system or by using an <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspheric_lens" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Aspheric lens">aspheric lens</a>.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromatic_aberration" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Chromatic aberration">Chromatic aberration</a> is caused by a lens having a different <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Refractive_index" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Refractive index">refractive index</a> for different <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wavelengths" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Wavelengths">wavelengths</a> of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Light">light</a> and the dependence of the optical properties on <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_vision" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Color vision">color</a>. Blue light will generally bend more than red light. There are higher order chromatic aberrations, such as the dependence of magnification on color. Chromatic aberration is compensated by using a lens made out of materials carefully designed to cancel out chromatic aberrations.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Curved focal surface is the dependence of the first order focus on the position on the film or CCD. This can be compensated with a multiple lens optical design, but curving the film has also been used.</div><h2 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; color: black; font-size: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.6em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Science_of_photography&action=edit&section=6" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Film grain resolution">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Film_grain_resolution">Film grain resolution</span></h2><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black-and-white" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Black-and-white">Black-and-white</a> film has a "shiny" side and a "dull" side. The dull side is the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emulsion" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Emulsion">emulsion</a>, a gelatin that suspends an array of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silver_halide" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Silver halide">silver halide</a>crystals. These crystals contain silver grains that determine how sensitive the film is to light exposure, and how fine or grainy the negative the print will look. Larger grains mean faster exposure but a grainier appearance; smaller grains are finer looking but take more exposure to activate. The graininess of film is represented by its <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Organization_for_Standardization" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="International Organization for Standardization">ISO</a> factor; generally a multiple of 10 or 100. Lower numbers produce finer grain but slower film, and vice versa.</div><h2 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; color: black; font-size: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.6em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Science_of_photography&action=edit&section=7" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Diffraction limit">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Diffraction_limit">Diffraction limit</span></h2><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Since light <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wave_propagation" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Wave propagation">propagates</a> as waves, the patterns it produces on the film are subject to the wave phenomenon known as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diffraction" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Diffraction">diffraction</a>, which limits the image resolution to features on the order of several times the wavelength of light. Diffraction is the main effect limiting the sharpness of optical images from lenses that are stopped down to small apertures (high f-numbers), while aberrations are the limiting effect at large apertures (low f-numbers). Since diffraction cannot be eliminated, the best possible lens for a given operating condition (aperture setting) is one that produces an image whose quality is limited only by diffraction. Such a lens is said to be <i>diffraction limited</i>.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">The diffraction-limited optical spot size on the CCD or film is proportional to the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F-number" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="F-number">f-number</a> (about equal to the f-number times the wavelength of light, which is near 0.0005 mm), making the overall detail in a photograph proportional to the size of the film, or CCD divided by the f-number. For a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/135_film" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="135 film">35 mm</a> camera with <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', Candara, Georgia, Calibri, Corbel, serif; font-style: italic;">f</span>/11, this limit corresponds to about 6,000 resolution elements across the width of the film (36 mm / (11 * 0.0005 mm) = 6,500.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">In other words, a camera cannot resolve two distant points unless their path lengths to the two sides of the open lens aperture differ by at least a half wave length; otherwise they will be both in phase at the same point on the film or CCD.</div><h2 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; color: black; font-size: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.6em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Science_of_photography&action=edit&section=8" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Contribution to noise (grain)">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Contribution_to_noise_.28grain.29">Contribution to noise (grain)</span></h2><h3 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; color: black; font-size: 17px; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Science_of_photography&action=edit&section=9" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Quantum efficiency">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Quantum_efficiency">Quantum efficiency</span></h3><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Light comes in particles and the energy of a light-particle (the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photon" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Photon">photon</a>) is the frequency of the light times <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planck%27s_constant" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Planck's constant">Planck's constant</a>. A fundamental property of any photographic method is how it collects the light on its <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photographic_plate" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Photographic plate">photographic plate</a> or electronic detector.</div><h3 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; color: black; font-size: 17px; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Science_of_photography&action=edit&section=10" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: CCDs and other photodiodes">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="CCDs_and_other_photodiodes">CCDs and other photodiodes</span></h3><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;"><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photodiodes" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Photodiodes">Photodiodes</a> are back-biased semiconductor diodes, in which an intrinsic layer with very few charge carriers prevents electric currents from flowing. Depending on the material, photons have enough energy to raise one <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Electron">electron</a> from the upper full band to the lowest empty band. The electron and the "hole", or empty space where it was, are then free to move in the electric field and carry current, which can be measured. The fraction of incident photons that produce carrier pairs depends largely on the semiconductor material.</div><h3 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; color: black; font-size: 17px; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Science_of_photography&action=edit&section=11" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Photomultiplier tubes">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Photomultiplier_tubes">Photomultiplier tubes</span></h3><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photomultiplier" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Photomultiplier">Photomultiplier</a> tubes are vacuum <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phototube" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Phototube">phototubes</a> that amplify light by accelerating the photoelectrons to knock more electrons free from a series of electrodes. They are among the most sensitive light detectors but are not well suited to photography.</div><h3 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; color: black; font-size: 17px; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Science_of_photography&action=edit&section=12" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Aliasing">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Aliasing">Aliasing</span></h3><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aliasing" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Aliasing">Aliasing</a> can occur in optical and chemical processing, but it is more common and easily understood in digital processing. It occurs whenever an optical or digital image is sampled or re-sampled at a rate which is too low for its resolution. Some digital cameras and scanners have<a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-aliasing" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Anti-aliasing">anti-aliasing</a> filters to reduce aliasing by intentionally blurring the image to match the sampling rate. It is common for film developing equipment used to make prints of different sizes to increase the graininess of the smaller size prints by aliasing.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">It is usually desirable to suppress both noise such as grain and detail of the real object that are too small to be represented at the sampling rate.</div>John Michael Acehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16447213303343013873noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1050591295065099165.post-2101139026556760232011-10-28T20:26:00.003-07:002011-10-28T20:26:58.840-07:00Metering Mode<span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px;"></span><br />
<div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">In <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photography" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Photography">photography</a>, the <b>metering mode</b> refers to the way in which a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camera" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Camera">camera</a> determines the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exposure_(photography)" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Exposure (photography)">exposure</a>.</div><table class="toc" id="toc" style="background-color: #f9f9f9; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; font-size: 12px; padding-bottom: 5px; padding-left: 5px; padding-right: 5px; padding-top: 5px;"><tbody>
<tr><td><div id="toctitle" style="direction: ltr; text-align: center;"><h2 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; border-width: initial; color: black; display: inline; font-size: 12px; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0.6em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; width: auto;">Contents</h2> <span class="toctoggle" style="font-size: 11px;"> [<a class="internal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metering_mode#" id="togglelink" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">hide</a>] </span></div><ul style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-image: none; list-style-type: none; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.3em; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left;"><li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metering_mode#Examples_of_metering_modes" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Examples of metering modes</span></a><ul style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-image: none; list-style-type: none; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 2em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left;"><li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-2" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metering_mode#Spot_metering" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Spot metering</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metering_mode#Center-weighted_average_metering" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">1.2</span> <span class="toctext">Center-weighted average metering</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metering_mode#Average_metering" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">1.3</span> <span class="toctext">Average metering</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-5" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metering_mode#Partial_metering" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">1.4</span> <span class="toctext">Partial metering</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metering_mode#Multi-zone_metering" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">1.5</span> <span class="toctext">Multi-zone metering</span></a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-7" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metering_mode#References" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-8" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metering_mode#External_links" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">External links</span></a></li>
</ul></td></tr>
</tbody></table><h2 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; color: black; font-size: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.6em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Metering_mode&action=edit&section=1" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Examples of metering modes">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Examples_of_metering_modes">Examples of metering modes</span></h2><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Cameras generally allow the user to select between <i>spot</i>, <i>center-weighted average</i>, or <i>multi-zone</i> metering modes.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Various metering modes are provided to allow the user to select the most appropriate one for use in a variety of lighting conditions.</div><h3 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; color: black; font-size: 17px; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Metering_mode&action=edit&section=2" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Spot metering">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Spot_metering">Spot metering</span></h3><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">With spot metering, the camera will only measure a very small area of the scene (between 1-5% of the viewfinder area). This will typically be the very centre of the scene, but some cameras allow the user to select a different off-centre spot, or to recompose by moving the camera after metering. The first spot meter was built by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_James_Dalladay" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Arthur James Dalladay">Arthur James Dalladay</a>, editor of The <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Journal_of_Photography" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="British Journal of Photography">British Journal of Photography</a> in about 1935 and described it in the BJP Almanac of 1937 on pages 127 to 138.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-0" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metering_mode#cite_note-0" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>1<span>]</span></a></sup></div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">A few models (including the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olympus_OM-4" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Olympus OM-4">Olympus OM-4</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canon_T90" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Canon T90">Canon T90</a> and in the digital world, the <a class="new" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Olympus_C-5050z&action=edit&redlink=1" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #ba0000; text-decoration: none;" title="Olympus C-5050z (page does not exist)">Olympus C-5050z</a>) support a <i>Multi-Spot</i> mode which allows multiple spot meter readings to be taken of a scene that are averaged. Some cameras, the OM-4 and T90 included, also support metering of highlight and shadow areas.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Spot metering is very accurate and is not influenced by other areas in the frame. It is commonly used to shoot very high contrast scenes. For example, if the subject's back is being hit by the rising sun and the face is a lot darker than the bright halo around the subject's back and hairline (the subject is "backlit"), spot metering allows the photographer to measure the light bouncing off the subject's face and expose properly for that, instead of the much brighter light around the hairline. The area around the back and hairline will then become over-exposed. Spot metering is a method upon which the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zone_System" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Zone System">Zone System</a> depends.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Another example of spot metering usage would be when photographing the moon. Due to the very dark nature of the scene, other metering methods tend to overexpose the moon. Spot metering will allow for more detail to be brought out in the moon while underexposing the rest of the scene.</div><h3 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; color: black; font-size: 17px; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Metering_mode&action=edit&section=3" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Center-weighted average metering">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Center-weighted_average_metering">Center-weighted average metering</span></h3><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">In this system, the meter concentrates between 60 to 80 percent of the sensitivity towards the central part of the viewfinder. The balance is then "feathered" out towards the edges. Some cameras will allow the user to adjust the weight/balance of the central portion to the peripheral one. One advantage of this method is that it is less influenced by small areas that vary greatly in brightness at the edges of the viewfinder; as many subjects are in the central part of the frame, consistent results can be obtained.</div><h3 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; color: black; font-size: 17px; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Metering_mode&action=edit&section=4" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Average metering">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Average_metering">Average metering</span></h3><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">In this metering mode the camera will use the light information coming from the entire scene and averages for the final exposure setting, giving no weighting to any particular portion of the metered area.</div><h3 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; color: black; font-size: 17px; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Metering_mode&action=edit&section=5" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Partial metering">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Partial_metering">Partial metering</span></h3><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">This mode meters a larger area than spot metering (around 10-15% of the entire frame), and is generally used when very bright or very dark areas on the edges of the frame would otherwise influence the metering unduly. Like spot metering, some cameras can use variable points to take readings from, (in general autofocus points), or have a fixed point in the centre of the viewfinder. Partial metering is found mostly on Canon cameras.</div><h3 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; color: black; font-size: 17px; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Metering_mode&action=edit&section=6" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Multi-zone metering">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Multi-zone_metering">Multi-zone metering</span></h3><div class="thumb tright" style="background-color: transparent; clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1.3em; margin-left: 1.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><div class="thumbinner" style="background-color: #f9f9f9; border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; font-size: 12px; min-width: 100px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-top: 3px !important; text-align: center; width: 222px;"><a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Multizone_metering_example.jpg" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="" class="thumbimage" height="331" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/5/51/Multizone_metering_example.jpg/220px-Multizone_metering_example.jpg" style="background-color: white; border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-color: initial; border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" width="220" /></a><div class="thumbcaption" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; font-size: 11px; line-height: 1.4em; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-top: 3px !important; text-align: left;"><div class="magnify" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; float: right;"><a class="internal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Multizone_metering_example.jpg" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; color: #0645ad; display: block; text-decoration: none;" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="http://bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.18/common/images/magnify-clip.png" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; border-width: initial; display: block; vertical-align: middle;" width="15" /></a></div>Honeycomb Metering on a Dynax 5D. The AF point was set to the eye of the toy; the camera has been able to produce a good exposure, by not being fooled by the strong back lighting of the out of focus areas.</div></div></div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">This mode is also called <i>matrix</i>, <i>evaluative</i>, <i>honeycomb</i>, <i>segment metering</i>, or <i>esp</i> (electro selective pattern) metering on some cameras. This metering mode was first introduced by the<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikon_FA" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Nikon FA">Nikon FA</a>, where it was called Automatic Multi-Pattern metering. On a number of cameras this is the default/standard metering setting. Here the camera measures the light intensity in several points in the scene, and then combines the results to find the settings for the best exposure. How they are combined/calculated deviates from camera to camera. The actual number of <i>zones</i> used varies wildly, from several to over a thousand. However performance should not be concluded on the number of zones alone, or the layout. In general, the most advanced metering is found on<a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Single-lens_reflex" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Single-lens reflex">single-lens reflex</a> cameras.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Many manufacturers are less than open about the exact calculations used to determine the exposure. A number of factors are taken into consideration, including the following: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autofocus" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Autofocus">Autofocus</a>point, distance to subject, areas in focus or out of focus, colours/hues of the scene, and backlighting. Multi-zone tends to bias its exposure towards the autofocus point being used (whilst taking into account other areas of the frame too), thus ensuring that the point of interest has been exposed for properly, (this often means the subject area being exposed for as a mid-tone). A database of many thousands of exposures is pre-stored in the camera, and the processor can use a <i>selective pattern</i> to determine what is being photographed.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-1" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metering_mode#cite_note-1" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>2<span>]</span></a></sup></div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Some cameras allow the user to link or unlink the autofocus and metering, and allow the option of locking exposure once AF confirmation is achieved, <i>AEL</i>, (auto-exposure lock). Using manual focus, and on many compacts/bridge cameras, the AF point is not used as part of the exposure calculation, in such instances it is common for the metering to default to a central point in the viewfinder, using a pattern based on that area. There is considerable variation from different manufacturers as to how multi-zone metering is implemented, and even from the same maker in their model range, and how much "priority" is given to the AF point itself. Some "Scene" modes, such as sunset, sports, night exposures etc., also often affect the calculations of this metering pattern.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">However, some photographers may be uncomfortable with multi-zone metering. This tends to stem from a lack of clarity about "how" the camera reacts in certain situations. The design concept behind multi-zone is to reduce the need to use <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exposure_compensation" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Exposure compensation">exposure compensation</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-2" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metering_mode#cite_note-2" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>3<span>]</span></a></sup></div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Some users have problems making wide-angle shots with high contrast, due to the large area which can vary greatly in brightness. It is important to understand that even in this situation, the focus point can be critical to the overall exposure.</div>John Michael Acehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16447213303343013873noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1050591295065099165.post-80206189574231486762011-10-28T20:26:00.001-07:002011-10-28T20:26:12.666-07:00Hyperfocal Distance<span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px;"></span><br />
<div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">In <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optics" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Optics">optics</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photography" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Photography">photography</a>, <b>hyperfocal distance</b> is a distance beyond which all objects can be brought into an "acceptable" <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Focus_(optics)" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Focus (optics)">focus</a>. There are two commonly used definitions of <i>hyperfocal distance</i>, leading to values that differ only slightly:</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;"><i>Definition 1:</i> The hyperfocal distance is the closest distance at which a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lens_(optics)" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Lens (optics)">lens</a> can be focused while keeping objects at infinity acceptably sharp. When the lens is focused at this distance, all objects at distances from half of the hyperfocal distance out to infinity will be acceptably sharp.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;"><i>Definition 2:</i> The hyperfocal distance is the distance beyond which all objects are acceptably sharp, for a lens focused at infinity.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">The distinction between the two meanings is rarely made, since they have almost identical values. The value computed according to the first definition exceeds that from the second by just one <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Focal_length" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Focal length">focal length</a>.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">As the hyperfocal distance is the focus distance giving the maximum <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_of_field" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Depth of field">depth of field</a>, it is the most desirable distance to set the focus of a<a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fixed_focus_lens" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Fixed focus lens">fixed-focus camera</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-0" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperfocal_distance#cite_note-0" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>1<span>]</span></a></sup></div><table class="toc" id="toc" style="background-color: #f9f9f9; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; font-size: 12px; padding-bottom: 5px; padding-left: 5px; padding-right: 5px; padding-top: 5px;"><tbody>
<tr><td><div id="toctitle" style="direction: ltr; text-align: center;"><h2 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; border-width: initial; color: black; display: inline; font-size: 12px; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0.6em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; width: auto;">Contents</h2> <span class="toctoggle" style="font-size: 11px;"> [<a class="internal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperfocal_distance#" id="togglelink" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">hide</a>] </span></div><ul style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-image: none; list-style-type: none; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.3em; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left;"><li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperfocal_distance#Acceptable_sharpness" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Acceptable sharpness</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperfocal_distance#Formulae" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Formulae</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-3" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperfocal_distance#Example" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Example</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-4" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperfocal_distance#Mathematical_phenomenon" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Mathematical phenomenon</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-5" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperfocal_distance#History" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">History</span></a><ul style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-image: none; list-style-type: none; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 2em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left;"><li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperfocal_distance#Sutton_and_Dawson_1867" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">5.1</span> <span class="toctext">Sutton and Dawson 1867</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-7" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperfocal_distance#Abney_1881" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">5.2</span> <span class="toctext">Abney 1881</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-8" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperfocal_distance#Taylor_1892" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">5.3</span> <span class="toctext">Taylor 1892</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-9" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperfocal_distance#Hodges_1895" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">5.4</span> <span class="toctext">Hodges 1895</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-10" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperfocal_distance#Piper_1901" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">5.5</span> <span class="toctext">Piper 1901</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-11" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperfocal_distance#Derr_1906" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">5.6</span> <span class="toctext">Derr 1906</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-12" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperfocal_distance#Johnson_1909" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">5.7</span> <span class="toctext">Johnson 1909</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-13" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperfocal_distance#Others.2C_early_twentieth_century" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">5.8</span> <span class="toctext">Others, early twentieth century</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-14" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperfocal_distance#Kingslake_1951" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">5.9</span> <span class="toctext">Kingslake 1951</span></a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-15" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperfocal_distance#See_also" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-16" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperfocal_distance#References" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-17" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperfocal_distance#External_links" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">8</span> <span class="toctext">External links</span></a></li>
</ul></td></tr>
</tbody></table><h2 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; color: black; font-size: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.6em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hyperfocal_distance&action=edit&section=1" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Acceptable sharpness">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Acceptable_sharpness">Acceptable sharpness</span></h2><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">The hyperfocal distance is entirely dependent upon what level of sharpness is considered to be acceptable. The criterion for the desired acceptable sharpness is specified through the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circle_of_confusion" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Circle of confusion">circle of confusion</a> (COC) diameter limit. This criterion is the largest acceptable spot size diameter that an infinitesimal point is allowed to spread out to on the imaging medium (film, digital sensor, etc.).</div><h2 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; color: black; font-size: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.6em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hyperfocal_distance&action=edit&section=2" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Formulae">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Formulae">Formulae</span></h2><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">For the first definition,</div><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><img alt="H = \frac{f^2}{N c} + f" class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/4/6/a/46a03e9bd0c3e710db829d665b3b4410.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" /></dd></dl><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">where</div><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><span class="texhtml" dir="ltr" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;"><i>H</i></span> is hyperfocal distance</dd></dl><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><span class="texhtml" dir="ltr" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;"><i>f</i></span> is <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Focal_length" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Focal length">focal length</a></dd></dl><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><span class="texhtml" dir="ltr" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;"><i>N</i></span> is <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F-number" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="F-number">f-number</a> (<span class="texhtml" dir="ltr" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;"><i>f</i> / <i>D</i></span> for aperture diameter <span class="texhtml" dir="ltr" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;"><i>D</i></span>)</dd></dl><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><span class="texhtml" dir="ltr" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;"><i>c</i></span> is the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circle_of_confusion" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Circle of confusion">circle of confusion</a> limit</dd></dl><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">For any practical f-number, the focal length is insignificant in comparison with the first term, so that</div><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><img alt="H \approx \frac{f^2}{N c}" class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/5/8/e/58ee94d03accdb2cf4e2ffd49d71cf95.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" /></dd></dl><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">This formula is exact for the second definition, if <span class="texhtml" dir="ltr" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;"><i>H</i></span> is measured from a thin lens, or from the front principal plane of a complex lens; it is also exact for the first definition if <span class="texhtml" dir="ltr" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;"><i>H</i></span> is measured from a point that is one focal length in front of the front principal plane. For practical purposes, there is little difference between the first and second definitions.</div><h2 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; color: black; font-size: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.6em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hyperfocal_distance&action=edit&section=3" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Example">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Example">Example</span></h2><div class="infobox" style="background-color: #f9f9f9; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; clear: right; color: black; float: right; font-size: 11px; line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.5em; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: left; width: 512px;"><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;"><map id="timeline_f31f37c795d48399bccb8afc1063b2c9" name="timeline_f31f37c795d48399bccb8afc1063b2c9"></map><img src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/timeline/f31f37c795d48399bccb8afc1063b2c9.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; vertical-align: middle;" usemap="#timeline_f31f37c795d48399bccb8afc1063b2c9" /></div><hr style="background-color: #aaaaaa; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; color: #aaaaaa; height: 1px; margin-bottom: 0.2em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.2em;" /><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_of_field" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Depth of field">Depths of field</a> of 3 ideal <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lens_(optics)" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Lens (optics)">lenses</a> of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Focal_length" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Focal length">focal lengths</a>, <i>f</i><sub style="line-height: 1em;">1</sub>, <i>f</i><sub style="line-height: 1em;">2</sub> and <i>f</i><sub style="line-height: 1em;">3</sub>, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F-number" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="F-number">f-numbers</a> <i>N</i><sub style="line-height: 1em;">1</sub>, <i>N</i><sub style="line-height: 1em;">2</sub> and <i>N</i><sub style="line-height: 1em;">3</sub> when focused at objects at different distances. <i>H</i><sub style="line-height: 1em;">1</sub>, <i>H</i><sub style="line-height: 1em;">2</sub> and <i>H</i><sub style="line-height: 1em;">3</sub> denote their respective <strong class="selflink">hyperfocal distances</strong>(using <i>Definition 1</i> in <strong class="selflink">that article</strong>) with a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circle_of_confusion" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Circle of confusion">circle of confusion</a> of 0.03 mm diameter. The darker bars show how that, for fixed subject distance, the depth of field is increased by using a shorter focal length or smaller aperture. The second topmost bar of each set illustrates the configuration for a <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fixed_focus" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Fixed focus">fixed focus</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camera" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Camera">camera</a> with the focus permanently set at the hyperfocal distance to maximise the depth of field.</div></div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">As an example, for a 50 mm lens at <span class="texhtml" dir="ltr" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;"><i>f</i> / 8</span> using a circle of confusion of 0.03 mm, which is a value typically used in 35 mm photography, the hyperfocal distance according to <i>Definition 1</i>,</div><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><img alt="H = \frac{(50)^2}{(8)(0.03)} + (50) = 10467 \mbox{ mm}" class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/f/8/b/f8b86b5873bbe78af54ea26fb89fc630.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" /></dd></dl><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">If the lens is focused at a distance of 10.5 m, then everything from half that distance (5.2 m) to infinity will be acceptably sharp in our photograph. With the formula for the <i>Definition 2</i>, the result is 10417 mm, a difference of 0.48%.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Note that the second definition assumes that the depth of field is symmetric around <i>H</i> (which is roughly correct for normal lenses) and therefore assumes a setting in which only half the depth of field is utilized (i.e., for a lens focused at infinity, the depth of field is 10.4 m to infinity).</div><h2 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; color: black; font-size: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.6em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hyperfocal_distance&action=edit&section=4" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Mathematical phenomenon">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Mathematical_phenomenon">Mathematical phenomenon</span></h2><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">The hyperfocal distance is a curious property: While a lens focused at <i>H</i> will hold a depth of field from <i>H</i>/2 to infinity, if the lens is focused to<i>H</i>/2, the depth of field will extend from <i>H</i>/3 to <i>H</i>; if the lens is then focused to <i>H</i>/3, the depth of field will extend from <i>H</i>/4 to <i>H</i>/2. This continues on through all successive 1/<i>x</i> values of the hyperfocal distance.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Piper 1901 calls this phenomenon "consecutive depths of field" and shows how to test the idea easily. This is also among the earliest of publications to use the word <i>hyperfocal</i>.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">The figure on the right illustrates this phenomenon.</div><h2 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; color: black; font-size: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.6em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hyperfocal_distance&action=edit&section=5" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="History">History</span></h2><div class="thumb tright" style="background-color: transparent; clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1.3em; margin-left: 1.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><div class="thumbinner" style="background-color: #f9f9f9; border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; font-size: 12px; min-width: 100px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-top: 3px !important; text-align: center; width: 302px;"><a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Derr_Hyperfocal_1906.png" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="" class="thumbimage" height="594" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f0/Derr_Hyperfocal_1906.png/300px-Derr_Hyperfocal_1906.png" style="background-color: white; border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-color: initial; border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; font-size: 11px; line-height: 1.4em; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-top: 3px !important; text-align: left;"><div class="magnify" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; float: right;"><a class="internal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Derr_Hyperfocal_1906.png" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; color: #0645ad; display: block; text-decoration: none;" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="http://bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.18/common/images/magnify-clip.png" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; border-width: initial; display: block; vertical-align: middle;" width="15" /></a></div>This early use of the term <i>hyperfocal distance</i>, Derr 1906, is by no means the earliest explanation of the concept.</div></div></div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">The concepts of the two definitions of hyperfocal distance have a long history, tied up with the terminology for depth of field, depth of focus, circle of confusion, etc. Here are some selected early quotations and interpretations on the topic.</div><h3 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; color: black; font-size: 17px; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hyperfocal_distance&action=edit&section=6" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Sutton and Dawson 1867">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Sutton_and_Dawson_1867">Sutton and Dawson 1867</span></h3><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Thomas Sutton and George Dawson<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-1" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperfocal_distance#cite_note-1" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>2<span>]</span></a></sup> define <i>focal range</i> for what we now call<i>hyperfocal distance</i>:</div><blockquote class="templatequote" style="margin-top: 0px;"><div>Focal Range. In every lens there is, corresponding to a given apertal ratio (that is, the ratio of the diameter of the stop to the focal length), a certain distance of a near object from it, between which and infinity all objects are in equally good focus. For instance, in a single view lens of 6 inch focus, with a 1/4 in. stop (apertal ratio one-twenty-fourth), all objects situated at distances lying between 20 feet from the lens and an infinite distance from it (a fixed star, for instance) are in equally good focus. Twenty feet is therefore called the “focal range” of the lens when this stop is used. The focal range is consequently the distance of the nearest object, which will be in good focus when the ground glass is adjusted for an extremely distant object. In the same lens, the focal range will depend upon the size of the diaphragm used, while in different lenses having the same apertal ratio the focal ranges will be greater as the focal length of the lens is increased. The terms 'apertal ratio' and 'focal range' have not come into general use, but it is very desirable that they should, in order to prevent ambiguity and circumlocution when treating of the properties of photographic lenses. 'Focal range' is a good term, because it expresses the range within which it is necessary to adjust the focus of the lens to objects at different distances from it – in other words, the range within which focusing becomes necessary.</div></blockquote><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Their focal range is about 1000 times their aperture diameter, so it makes sense as a hyperfocal distance with COC value of <i>f</i>/1000, or image format diagonal times 1/1000 assuming the lens is a “normal” lens. What is not clear, however, is whether the focal range they cite was computed, or empirical.</div><h3 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; color: black; font-size: 17px; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hyperfocal_distance&action=edit&section=7" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Abney 1881">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Abney_1881">Abney 1881</span></h3><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Sir William de Wivelesley Abney<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-2" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperfocal_distance#cite_note-2" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>3<span>]</span></a></sup> says:</div><blockquote class="templatequote" style="margin-top: 0px;"><div>The annexed formula will approximately give the nearest point <i>p</i> which will appear in focus when the distance is accurately focussed, supposing the admissible disc of confusion to be 0.025 cm:<br />
<dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><img alt="p = 0.41 \cdot f^2 \cdot a" class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/9/7/1/971773a9349a32433602656385931475.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" /></dd><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;">when
<dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><span class="texhtml" dir="ltr" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;"><i>f</i> =</span> the focal length of the lens in cm</dd><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><span class="texhtml" dir="ltr" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;"><i>a</i> =</span> the ratio of the aperture to the focal length</dd></dl></dd></dl></div></blockquote><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">That is, <i>a</i> is the reciprocal of what we now call the <i>f</i>-number, and the answer is evidently in meters. His 0.41 should obviously be 0.40. Based on his formulae, and on the notion that the <i>aperture ratio</i> should be kept fixed in comparisons across formats, Abney says:</div><blockquote class="templatequote" style="margin-top: 0px;"><div>It can be shown that an enlargement from a small negative is better than a picture of the same size taken direct as regards sharpness of detail. ... Care must be taken to distinguish between the advantages to be gained in enlargement by the use of a smaller lens, with the disadvantages that ensue from the deterioration in the relative values of light and shade.</div></blockquote><h3 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; color: black; font-size: 17px; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hyperfocal_distance&action=edit&section=8" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Taylor 1892">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Taylor_1892">Taylor 1892</span></h3><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">John Traill Taylor<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-3" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperfocal_distance#cite_note-3" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>4<span>]</span></a></sup> recalls this word formula for a sort of hyperfocal distance:</div><blockquote class="templatequote" style="margin-top: 0px;"><div>We have seen it laid down as an approximative rule by some writers on optics (Thomas Sutton, if we remember aright), that if the diameter of the stop be a fortieth part of the focus of the lens, the depth of focus will range between infinity and a distance equal to four times as many feet as there are inches in the focus of the lens.</div></blockquote><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">This formula implies a stricter COC criterion than we typically use today.</div><h3 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; color: black; font-size: 17px; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hyperfocal_distance&action=edit&section=9" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Hodges 1895">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Hodges_1895">Hodges 1895</span></h3><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">John Hodges<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-4" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperfocal_distance#cite_note-4" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>5<span>]</span></a></sup> discusses depth of field without formulas but with some of these relationships:</div><blockquote class="templatequote" style="margin-top: 0px;"><div>There is a point, however, beyond which everything will be in pictorially good definition, but the longer the focus of the lens used, the further will the point beyond which everything is in sharp focus be removed from the camera. Mathematically speaking, the amount of depth possessed by a lens varies inversely as the square of its focus.</div></blockquote><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">This "mathematically" observed relationship implies that he had a formula at hand, and a parameterization with the f-number or “intensity ratio” in it. To get an inverse-square relation to focal length, you have to assume that the COC limit is fixed and the aperture diameter scales with the focal length, giving a constant f-number.</div><h3 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; color: black; font-size: 17px; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hyperfocal_distance&action=edit&section=10" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Piper 1901">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Piper_1901">Piper 1901</span></h3><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">C. Welborne Piper<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-5" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperfocal_distance#cite_note-5" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>6<span>]</span></a></sup> may be the first to have published a clear distinction between <i>Depth of Field</i> in the modern sense and <i>Depth of Definition</i> in the focal plane, and implies that <i>Depth of Focus</i> and <i>Depth of Distance</i> are sometimes used for the former (in modern usage,<i>Depth of Focus</i> is usually reserved for the latter). He uses the term <i>Depth Constant</i> for <i>H</i>, and measures it from the front principal focus (i. e., he counts one focal length less than the distance from the lens to get the simpler formula), and even introduces the modern term:</div><blockquote class="templatequote" style="margin-top: 0px;"><div>This is the maximum depth of field possible, and <i>H</i> + <i>f</i> may be styled the distance of maximum depth of field. If we measure this distance extra-focally it is equal to <i>H</i>, and is sometimes called the hyperfocal distance. The depth constant and the hyperfocal distance are quite distinct, though of the same value.</div></blockquote><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">It is unclear what distinction he means. Adjacent to Table I in his appendix, he further notes:</div><blockquote class="templatequote" style="margin-top: 0px;"><div>If we focus on infinity, the constant is the focal distance of the nearest object in focus. If we focus on an extra-focal distance equal to the constant, we obtain a maximum depth of field from approximately half the constant distance up to infinity. The constant is then the hyper-focal distance.</div></blockquote><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">At this point we do not have evidence of the term <i>hyperfocal</i> before Piper, nor the hyphenated <i>hyper-focal</i> which he also used, but he obviously did not claim to coin this descriptor himself.</div><h3 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; color: black; font-size: 17px; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hyperfocal_distance&action=edit&section=11" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Derr 1906">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Derr_1906">Derr 1906</span></h3><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Louis Derr<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-6" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperfocal_distance#cite_note-6" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>7<span>]</span></a></sup> may be the first to clearly specify the first definition, which is considered to be the strictly correct one in modern times, and to derive the formula corresponding to it. Using <span class="texhtml" dir="ltr" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;"><i>p</i></span> for hyperfocal distance, <span class="texhtml" dir="ltr" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;"><i>D</i></span> for aperture diameter, <span class="texhtml" dir="ltr" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;"><i>d</i></span> for the diameter that a circle of confusion shall not exceed, and <span class="texhtml" dir="ltr" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;"><i>f</i></span> for focal length, he derives:</div><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><img alt="p = \frac{(D + d) f}{d}" class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/1/a/d/1ada0a757e0ccae182fa19dfbefb1631.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" /> <a class="external autonumber" href="http://books.google.com/books?id=AN6d4zTjquwC&pg=PA78" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: url(data:image/png; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #3366bb; padding-right: 13px; text-decoration: none;">[1]</a></dd></dl><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">As the aperture diameter, <span class="texhtml" dir="ltr" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;"><i>D</i></span> is the ratio of the focal length, <span class="texhtml" dir="ltr" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;"><i>f</i></span> to the numerical aperture, <span class="texhtml" dir="ltr" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;"><i>N</i></span>; and the diameter of the circle of confusion, <span class="texhtml" dir="ltr" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;"><i>c</i> = <i>d</i></span>, this gives the equation for the first definition above.</div><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><img alt="p = \frac{(\tfrac{f}{N} + c) f}{c} = \frac{f^2}{N c} + f" class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/2/a/d/2adf840ce549810293109b1f815d7067.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" /></dd></dl><h3 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; color: black; font-size: 17px; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hyperfocal_distance&action=edit&section=12" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Johnson 1909">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Johnson_1909">Johnson 1909</span></h3><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">George Lindsay Johnson<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-7" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperfocal_distance#cite_note-7" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>8<span>]</span></a></sup> uses the term <i>Depth of Field</i> for what Abney called <i>Depth of Focus,</i> and <i>Depth of Focus</i> in the modern sense (possibly for the first time), as the allowable distance error in the focal plane. His definitions include hyperfocal distance:</div><blockquote class="templatequote" style="margin-top: 0px;"><div>Depth of Focus is a convenient, but not strictly accurate term, used to describe the amount of racking movement (forwards or backwards) which can be given to the screen without the image becoming sensibly blurred, i.e. without any blurring in the image exceeding 1/100 in., or in the case of negatives to be enlarged or scientific work, the 1/10 or 1/100 mm. Then the breadth of a point of light, which, of course, causes blurring on both sides, i.e. 1/50 in = 2<i>e</i> (or 1/100 in = <i>e</i>).</div></blockquote><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">His drawing makes it clear that his <i>e</i> is the radius of the circle of confusion. He has clearly anticipated the need to tie it to format size or enlargement, but has not given a general scheme for choosing it.</div><blockquote class="templatequote" style="margin-top: 0px;"><div>Depth of Field is precisely the same as depth of focus, only in the former case the depth is measured by the movement of the plate, the object being fixed, while in the latter case the depth is measured by the distance through which the object can be moved without the circle of confusion exceeding 2<i>e</i>.<div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Thus if a lens which is focused for infinity still gives a sharp image for an object at 6 yards, its depth of field is from infinity to 6 yards, every object beyond 6 yards being in focus.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">This distance (6 yards) is termed the <i>hyperfocal distance</i> of the lens, and any allowable confusion disc depends on the focal length of the lens and on the stop used.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">If the limit of confusion of half of the disc (i.e. <i>e</i>) be taken as 1/100 in., then the hyperfocal distance</div><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><img alt="H = \frac{F d}{e} " class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/9/6/2/962a513914b40fbf3c0030c43cdab549.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" />,</dd></dl><i>d</i> being the diameter of the stop, ...</div></blockquote><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Johnson's use of <i>former</i> and <i>latter</i> seem to be swapped; perhaps <i>former</i> was here meant to refer to the immediately preceding section title<i>Depth of Focus</i>, and <i>latter</i> to the current section title <i>Depth of Field</i>. Except for an obvious factor-of-2 error in using the ratio of stop diameter to COC radius, this definition is the same as Abney's hyperfocal distance.</div><h3 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; color: black; font-size: 17px; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hyperfocal_distance&action=edit&section=13" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Others, early twentieth century">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Others.2C_early_twentieth_century">Others, early twentieth century</span></h3><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">The term <i>hyperfocal distance</i> also appears in Cassell's <i>Cyclopaedia</i> of 1911, <i>The Sinclair Handbook of Photography</i> of 1913, and Bayley's<i>The Complete Photographer</i> of 1914.</div><h3 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; color: black; font-size: 17px; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hyperfocal_distance&action=edit&section=14" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Kingslake 1951">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Kingslake_1951">Kingslake 1951</span></h3><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Rudolf Kingslake<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-8" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperfocal_distance#cite_note-8" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>9<span>]</span></a></sup> is explicit about the two meanings:</div><blockquote class="templatequote" style="margin-top: 0px;"><div><i>The Hyperfocal Distance</i> – It should be noted that if the camera is focused on a distance <i>s</i> equal to 1000 times the diameter of the lens aperture, then the far depth <span class="texhtml" dir="ltr" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;"><i>D</i><sub style="line-height: 1em;">1</sub></span> becomes infinite. This critical object distance "<i>h</i>" is known as the <i>Hyperfocal Distance</i>. For a camera focused on this distance, <img alt="D_1 = \infty" class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/4/7/f/47f6653742b45cd57d6e595c861a8f28.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" /> and <span class="texhtml" dir="ltr" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;"><i>D</i><sub style="line-height: 1em;">2</sub> = <i>h</i> / 2</span>, and we see that the range of distances acceptably in focus will run from just half the hyperfocal distance to infinity. The hyperfocal distance is, therefore, the most desirable distance on which to pre-set the focus of a fixed-focus camera. It is worth noting, too, that if a camera is focused on <img alt="s = \infty" class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/9/6/a/96af40bd57b490782ff7e863e521a0e3.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" />, the closest acceptable object is at <span class="texhtml" dir="ltr" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;"><i>L</i><sub style="line-height: 1em;">2</sub> = <i>s</i><i>h</i> / (<i>h</i> + <i>s</i>) = <i>h</i> / (<i>h</i> / <i>s</i> + 1) = <i>h</i></span> (by equation 21). This is a second important meaning of the hyperfocal distance.</div></blockquote><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Kingslake uses the simplest formulae for DOF near and far distances, which has the effect of making the two different definitions of hyperfocal distance give identical values.</div>John Michael Acehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16447213303343013873noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1050591295065099165.post-89932041494383373822011-10-28T20:23:00.003-07:002011-10-28T20:23:49.649-07:00Depth of Focus<span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px;"></span><br />
<div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;"><b>Depth of focus</b> is a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lens_(optics)" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Lens (optics)">lens</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optics" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Optics">optics</a> concept that measures the tolerance of placement of the image plane (the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Film">film</a> plane in a camera) in relation to the lens. In a camera, depth of focus indicates the tolerance of the film's displacement within the camera, and is therefore sometimes referred to as "lens-to-film tolerance."</div><table class="toc" id="toc" style="background-color: #f9f9f9; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; font-size: 12px; padding-bottom: 5px; padding-left: 5px; padding-right: 5px; padding-top: 5px;"><tbody>
<tr><td><div id="toctitle" style="direction: ltr; text-align: center;"><h2 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; border-width: initial; color: black; display: inline; font-size: 12px; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0.6em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; width: auto;">Contents</h2> <span class="toctoggle" style="font-size: 11px;"> [<a class="internal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_of_focus#" id="togglelink" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">hide</a>] </span></div><ul style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-image: none; list-style-type: none; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.3em; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left;"><li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_of_focus#Depth_of_focus_vs_depth_of_field" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Depth of focus vs depth of field</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_of_focus#Determining_factors" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Determining factors</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-3" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_of_focus#Calculation" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Calculation</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-4" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_of_focus#References" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a></li>
</ul></td></tr>
</tbody></table><h2 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; color: black; font-size: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.6em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Depth_of_focus&action=edit&section=1" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Depth of focus vs depth of field">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Depth_of_focus_vs_depth_of_field"><i>Depth of focus</i> vs <i>depth of field</i></span></h2><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">While the phrase <i>depth of focus</i> was historically used, and is sometimes still used, to mean <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_of_field" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Depth of field">depth of field</a></i>, in modern times it is more often reserved for the image-side depth.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;"><i>Depth of field</i> is the range of distances in object space for which object points are imaged with acceptable sharpness with a fixed position of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_plane" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Film plane">image plane</a> (the plane of the film or electronic sensor). <i>Depth of focus</i> can have two slightly different meanings. The first is the distance over which the image plane can be displaced while a single object plane remains in acceptably sharp <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Focus_(optics)" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Focus (optics)">focus</a>;<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Larmore1965p167_0-0" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_of_focus#cite_note-Larmore1965p167-0" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>1<span>]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Ray2000p56_1-0" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_of_focus#cite_note-Ray2000p56-1" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>2<span>]</span></a></sup> the second is the image-side conjugate of depth of field.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Ray2000p56_1-1" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_of_focus#cite_note-Ray2000p56-1" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>2<span>]</span></a></sup> With the first meaning, the depth of focus is symmetrical about the image plane; with the second, the depth of focus is greater on the far side of the image plane, though in most cases the distances are approximately equal.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Where depth of field often can be measured in macroscopic units such as meters and feet, depth of focus is typically measured in microscopic units such as fractions of a millimeter or thousandths of an inch.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">The same factors that determine depth of field also determine depth of focus, but these factors can have different effects than they have in depth of field. Both depth of field and depth of focus increase with smaller <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aperture" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Aperture">apertures</a>. For distant subjects (beyond macro range), depth of focus is relatively insensitive to focal length and subject distance, for a fixed <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F-number" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="F-number">f-number</a>. In the macro region, depth of focus increases with longer focal length or closer subject distance, while depth of field decreases.</div><h2 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; color: black; font-size: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.6em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Depth_of_focus&action=edit&section=2" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Determining factors">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Determining_factors">Determining factors</span></h2><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">In small-format cameras, the smaller <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circle_of_confusion" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Circle of confusion">circle of confusion</a> limit yields a proportionately smaller depth of focus. In <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Movie_camera" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Movie camera">motion picture cameras</a>, different lens mount and camera gate combinations have exact <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flange_focal_depth" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Flange focal depth">flange focal depth</a> measurements to which lenses are calibrated.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">The choice to place <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gels" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Gels">gels</a> or other <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filter_(photography)" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Filter (photography)">filters</a> behind the lens becomes a much more critical decision when dealing with smaller formats. Placement of items behind the lens will alter the optics pathway, shifting the <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Focal_plane" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Focal plane">focal plane</a>. Therefore, often this insertion must be done in concert with stopping down the lens in order to compensate enough to make any shift negligible given a greater depth of focus. It is often advised in <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/35_mm" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="35 mm">35 mm</a> motion picture filming not to use filters behind the lens if the lens is wider than 25 mm.</div><h2 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; color: black; font-size: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.6em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Depth_of_focus&action=edit&section=3" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Calculation">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Calculation">Calculation</span></h2><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">When the depth of focus relates to a single plane in object space, it can be calculated from<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Larmore1965p167_0-1" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_of_focus#cite_note-Larmore1965p167-0" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>1<span>]</span></a></sup></div><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><img alt="t = 2Nc \frac {v} {f} \,," class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/6/2/f/62f902607a4aa73d3167408cdd2cc2cd.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" /></dd></dl><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">where <i>t</i> is the total depth of focus, <i>N</i> is the lens <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F-number" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="F-number"><i>f</i>-number</a>, <i>c</i> is the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circle_of_confusion" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Circle of confusion">circle of confusion</a>, <i>v</i> is the image distance, and <i>f</i> is the lens focal length. In most cases, the image distance is not easily determined; the depth of focus can also be given in terms of magnification <i>m</i>:</div><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><img alt="t = 2Nc \left ( 1 + m \right ) \,." class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/e/0/1/e01750d4df44955d84d9ea7f068195a7.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" /></dd></dl><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">The magnification depends on the focal length and the subject distance, and sometimes it can be difficult to estimate. When the magnification is small, the formula simplifies to</div><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><img alt="t \approx 2Nc \,." class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/c/7/3/c7397935b61a598aa6d0bc9565d73549.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" /></dd></dl><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">The simple formula is often used as a guideline, as it is much easier to calculate, and in many cases, the difference from the exact formula is insignificant. Moreover, the simple formula will always err on the conservative side (i.e., depth of focus will always be greater than calculated).</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Following historical convention, the circle of confusion is sometimes taken as the lens focal length divided by 1000 (with the result in same units as the focal length);<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Larmore1965p163_2-0" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_of_focus#cite_note-Larmore1965p163-2" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>3<span>]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Ray2000p53_3-0" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_of_focus#cite_note-Ray2000p53-3" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>4<span>]</span></a></sup> this formula makes most sense in the case of normal lens (as opposed to wide-angle or telephoto), where the focal length is a representation of the format size. This practice is now deprecated; it is more common to base the circle of confusion on the format size (for example, the diagonal divided by 1000 or 1500).<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Ray2000p53_3-1" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_of_focus#cite_note-Ray2000p53-3" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>4<span>]</span></a></sup></div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">In astronomy, the depth of focus <span class="texhtml" dir="ltr" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;">Δ<i>f</i></span> is the amount of defocus that introduces a <img alt=" \pm \lambda/4 " class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/3/9/f/39f983ffa5c9bcd32e0423d1c2f98c0c.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; vertical-align: middle;" /> wavefront error, and can be calculated using<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-4" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_of_focus#cite_note-4" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>5<span>]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Lipson2010_5-0" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_of_focus#cite_note-Lipson2010-5" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>6<span>]</span></a></sup></div><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><img alt=" \Delta f = \pm 2 \lambda N^2 " class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/b/8/5/b8534972ff5fe7115b6a93883a70e299.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" />.</dd></dl>John Michael Acehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16447213303343013873noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1050591295065099165.post-51181817127328764832011-10-28T20:23:00.001-07:002011-10-28T20:23:04.486-07:00Depth of Field<span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px;"></span><br />
<div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">In <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optics" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Optics">optics</a>, particularly as it relates to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Film">film</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photography" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Photography">photography</a>,<b>depth of field</b> (DOF) is the distance between the nearest and farthest objects in a scene that appear acceptably sharp in an image. Although a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lens_(optics)" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Lens (optics)">lens</a> can precisely focus at only one distance at a time, the decrease in sharpness is gradual on each side of the focused distance, so that within the DOF, the unsharpness is imperceptible under normal viewing conditions.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">In some cases, it may be desirable to have the entire image sharp, and a large DOF is appropriate. In other cases, a small DOF may be more effective, emphasizing the subject while de-emphasizing the foreground and background. In<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cinematography" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Cinematography">cinematography</a>, a large DOF is often called <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deep_focus" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Deep focus">deep focus</a>, and a small DOF is often called <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shallow_focus" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Shallow focus">shallow focus</a>.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">The DOF is determined by the camera-to-subject distance, the lens <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Focal_length" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Focal length">focal length</a>, the lens <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F-number" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="F-number"><i>f</i>-number</a>, and the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image_sensor_format" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Image sensor format">format size</a> or <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circle_of_confusion" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Circle of confusion">circle of confusion</a> criterion.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">For a given format size, at moderate subject distances, DOF is approximately determined by the subject <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnification" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Magnification">magnification</a> and the lens <i>f</i>-number. For a given <i>f</i>-number, increasing the magnification, either by moving closer to the subject or using a lens of greater focal length, decreases the DOF; decreasing magnification increases DOF. For a given subject magnification, increasing the <i>f</i>-number (decreasing the aperture diameter) increases the DOF; decreasing <i>f</i>-number decreases DOF.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">When the “same picture” is taken in two different format sizes from the same distance at the same<i>f</i>-number with lenses that give the same angle of view, and the final images (e.g., in prints, or on a projection screen or electronic display) are the same size, the smaller format has greater DOF.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Many small-format <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_SLR" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Digital SLR">digital SLR</a> camera systems allow using many of the same lenses on both full-frame and “cropped format” cameras. If the subject distance is adjusted to provide the <i>same field of view</i> at the subject, at the same <i>f</i>-number and final-image size, the smaller format has <i>greater</i>DOF, as with the “same picture” comparison above. If pictures are taken from the <i>same distance</i>using the same <i>f</i>-number, and the final images are the same size, the smaller format has <i>less</i>DOF. If pictures taken from the same subject distance are given the <i>same enlargement</i>, both final images will have the <i>same</i> DOF. The final images will, of course, have different sizes.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Cropping an image and enlarging to the same size final image as an uncropped image taken under the same conditions is equivalent to using a smaller format under the same conditions, so the cropped image has less DOF.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">When focus is set to the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperfocal_distance" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Hyperfocal distance">hyperfocal distance</a>, the DOF extends from half the hyperfocal distance to infinity, and the DOF is the largest possible for a given <i>f</i>-number.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">The advent of digital technology in photography has provided additional means of controlling the extent of image sharpness; some methods allow extended DOF that would be impossible with traditional techniques, and some allow the DOF to be determined after the image is made.</div><table class="toc" id="toc" style="background-color: #f9f9f9; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; font-size: 12px; padding-bottom: 5px; padding-left: 5px; padding-right: 5px; padding-top: 5px;"><tbody>
<tr><td><div id="toctitle" style="direction: ltr; text-align: center;"><h2 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; border-width: initial; color: black; display: inline; font-size: 12px; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0.6em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; width: auto;">Contents</h2> <span class="toctoggle" style="font-size: 11px;"> [<a class="internal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_of_field#" id="togglelink" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">hide</a>] </span></div><ul style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-image: none; list-style-type: none; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.3em; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left;"><li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_of_field#Acceptable_sharpness" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Acceptable sharpness</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_of_field#Effect_of_lens_aperture" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Effect of lens aperture</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-3" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_of_field#Obtaining_maximum_DOF" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Obtaining maximum DOF</span></a><ul style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-image: none; list-style-type: none; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 2em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left;"><li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_of_field#Lens_DOF_scales" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">3.1</span> <span class="toctext">Lens DOF scales</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-5" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_of_field#Zone_focusing" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">3.2</span> <span class="toctext">Zone focusing</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_of_field#Hyperfocal_distance" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">3.3</span> <span class="toctext">Hyperfocal distance</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-7" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_of_field#Object_field_methods" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">3.4</span> <span class="toctext">Object field methods</span></a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-8" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_of_field#Limited_DOF:_selective_focus" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Limited DOF: selective focus</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-9" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_of_field#Near:far_distribution" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">Near:far distribution</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-10" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_of_field#DOF_vs._format_size" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">DOF vs. format size</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-11" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_of_field#Camera_movements_and_DOF" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">Camera movements and DOF</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-12" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_of_field#DOF_formulas" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">8</span> <span class="toctext">DOF formulas</span></a><ul style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-image: none; list-style-type: none; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 2em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left;"><li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-13" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_of_field#Hyperfocal_Distance_2" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">8.1</span> <span class="toctext">Hyperfocal Distance</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-14" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_of_field#Moderate-to-large_distances" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">8.2</span> <span class="toctext">Moderate-to-large distances</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-15" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_of_field#Close-up" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">8.3</span> <span class="toctext">Close-up</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-16" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_of_field#Focus_and_f-number_from_DOF_limits" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">8.4</span> <span class="toctext">Focus and f-number from DOF limits</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-17" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_of_field#Foreground_and_background_blur" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">8.5</span> <span class="toctext">Foreground and background blur</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-18" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_of_field#Practical_complications" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">8.6</span> <span class="toctext">Practical complications</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-19" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_of_field#Limitations" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">8.7</span> <span class="toctext">Limitations</span></a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-20" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_of_field#DOF_and_diffraction" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">9</span> <span class="toctext">DOF and diffraction</span></a><ul style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-image: none; list-style-type: none; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 2em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left;"><li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-21" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_of_field#Optimal_f-number" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">9.1</span> <span class="toctext">Optimal f-number</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-22" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_of_field#Determining_combined_defocus_and_diffraction" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">9.2</span> <span class="toctext">Determining combined defocus and diffraction</span></a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-23" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_of_field#Photolithography" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">10</span> <span class="toctext">Photolithography</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-24" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_of_field#Ophthalmology_and_optometry" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">11</span> <span class="toctext">Ophthalmology and optometry</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-25" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_of_field#Digital_techniques_for_extending_DOF" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">12</span> <span class="toctext">Digital techniques for extending DOF</span></a><ul style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-image: none; list-style-type: none; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 2em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left;"><li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-26" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_of_field#Focus_stacking" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">12.1</span> <span class="toctext">Focus stacking</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-27" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_of_field#Wavefront_coding" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">12.2</span> <span class="toctext">Wavefront coding</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-28" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_of_field#Plenoptic_cameras" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">12.3</span> <span class="toctext">Plenoptic cameras</span></a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-29" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_of_field#Derivation_of_the_DOF_formulas" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">13</span> <span class="toctext">Derivation of the DOF formulas</span></a><ul style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-image: none; list-style-type: none; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 2em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left;"><li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-30" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_of_field#DOF_limits" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">13.1</span> <span class="toctext">DOF limits</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-31" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_of_field#Hyperfocal_distance_3" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">13.2</span> <span class="toctext">Hyperfocal distance</span></a><ul style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-image: none; list-style-type: none; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 2em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left;"><li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-32" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_of_field#Hyperfocal_magnification" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">13.2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Hyperfocal magnification</span></a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-33" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_of_field#DOF_in_terms_of_magnification" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">13.3</span> <span class="toctext">DOF in terms of magnification</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-34" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_of_field#DOF_vs._focal_length" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">13.4</span> <span class="toctext">DOF vs. focal length</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-35" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_of_field#Moderate-to-large_distances_2" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">13.5</span> <span class="toctext">Moderate-to-large distances</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-36" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_of_field#Close-up_2" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">13.6</span> <span class="toctext">Close-up</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-37" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_of_field#Near:far_DOF_ratio" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">13.7</span> <span class="toctext">Near:far DOF ratio</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-38" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_of_field#DOF_vs._format_size_2" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">13.8</span> <span class="toctext">DOF vs. format size</span></a><ul style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-image: none; list-style-type: none; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 2em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left;"><li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-39" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_of_field#.E2.80.9CSame_picture.E2.80.9D_for_both_formats" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">13.8.1</span> <span class="toctext">“Same picture” for both formats</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-40" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_of_field#Same_focal_length_for_both_formats" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">13.8.2</span> <span class="toctext">Same focal length for both formats</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-41" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_of_field#Cropping" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">13.8.3</span> <span class="toctext">Cropping</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-42" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_of_field#Use_of_absolute_aperture_diameter" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">13.8.4</span> <span class="toctext">Use of absolute aperture diameter</span></a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-43" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_of_field#Focus_and_f-number_from_DOF_limits_2" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">13.9</span> <span class="toctext">Focus and f-number from DOF limits</span></a><ul style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-image: none; list-style-type: none; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 2em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left;"><li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-44" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_of_field#Object-side_relationships" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">13.9.1</span> <span class="toctext">Object-side relationships</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-45" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_of_field#Image-side_relationships" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">13.9.2</span> <span class="toctext">Image-side relationships</span></a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-46" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_of_field#Foreground_and_background_blur_2" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">13.10</span> <span class="toctext">Foreground and background blur</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-47" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_of_field#Asymmetrical_lenses" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">13.11</span> <span class="toctext">Asymmetrical lenses</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-48" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_of_field#Effect_of_lens_asymmetry" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">13.12</span> <span class="toctext">Effect of lens asymmetry</span></a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-49" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_of_field#Notes" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">14</span> <span class="toctext">Notes</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-50" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_of_field#See_also" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">15</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-51" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_of_field#References" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">16</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-52" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_of_field#Further_reading" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">17</span> <span class="toctext">Further reading</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-53" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_of_field#External_links" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">18</span> <span class="toctext">External links</span></a></li>
</ul></td></tr>
</tbody></table><h2 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; color: black; font-size: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.6em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Depth_of_field&action=edit&section=1" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Acceptable sharpness">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Acceptable_sharpness">Acceptable sharpness</span></h2><div class="thumb tleft" style="background-color: transparent; clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 1.4em; margin-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><div class="thumbinner" style="background-color: #f9f9f9; border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; font-size: 12px; min-width: 100px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-top: 3px !important; text-align: center; width: 222px;"><a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Lens_aperture_side.jpg" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="" class="thumbimage" height="220" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Lens_aperture_side.jpg/220px-Lens_aperture_side.jpg" style="background-color: white; border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-color: initial; border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" width="220" /></a><div class="thumbcaption" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; font-size: 11px; line-height: 1.4em; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-top: 3px !important; text-align: left;"><div class="magnify" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; float: right;"><a class="internal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Lens_aperture_side.jpg" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; color: #0645ad; display: block; text-decoration: none;" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="http://bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.18/common/images/magnify-clip.png" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; border-width: initial; display: block; vertical-align: middle;" width="15" /></a></div>A 35 mm lens set to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F-number" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="F-number"><i>f</i>/11</a>. The depth-of-field scale (top) indicates that a subject which is anywhere between 1 and 2 meters in front of the camera will be rendered acceptably sharp. If the aperture were set to <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', Candara, Georgia, Calibri, Corbel, serif; font-style: italic;">f</span>/22 instead, everything from just over 0.7 meters almost to infinity would appear to be in focus.</div></div></div><div class="thumb tright" style="background-color: transparent; clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1.3em; margin-left: 1.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><div class="thumbinner" style="background-color: #f9f9f9; border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; font-size: 12px; min-width: 100px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-top: 3px !important; text-align: center; width: 222px;"><a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shallow_Depth_of_Field_with_Bokeh.jpg" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="" class="thumbimage" height="146" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Shallow_Depth_of_Field_with_Bokeh.jpg/220px-Shallow_Depth_of_Field_with_Bokeh.jpg" style="background-color: white; border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-color: initial; border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" width="220" /></a><div class="thumbcaption" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; font-size: 11px; line-height: 1.4em; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-top: 3px !important; text-align: left;"><div class="magnify" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; float: right;"><a class="internal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shallow_Depth_of_Field_with_Bokeh.jpg" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; color: #0645ad; display: block; text-decoration: none;" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="http://bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.18/common/images/magnify-clip.png" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; border-width: initial; display: block; vertical-align: middle;" width="15" /></a></div>Out-of-focus highlights have the shape of the lens aperture.</div></div></div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Precise focus is possible at only one distance; at that distance, a point object will produce a point image.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-0" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_of_field#cite_note-0" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>1<span>]</span></a></sup>At any other distance, a point object is <i><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Defocus" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Defocus">defocused</a></i>, and will produce a blur spot shaped like the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aperture" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Aperture">aperture</a>, which for the purpose of analysis is usually assumed to be circular. When this circular spot is sufficiently small, it is indistinguishable from a point, and appears to be in focus; it is rendered as “acceptably sharp”. The diameter of the circle increases with distance from the point of focus; the largest circle that is indistinguishable from a point is known as the <i><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acceptable_circle_of_confusion" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Acceptable circle of confusion">acceptable circle of confusion</a></i>, or informally, simply as the <i>circle of confusion</i>. The acceptable circle of confusion is influenced by visual acuity, viewing conditions, and the amount by which the image is enlarged (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_of_field#CITEREFRay2000" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">Ray 2000</a>, 52–53). The increase of the circle diameter with defocus is gradual, so the limits of depth of field are not hard boundaries between sharp and unsharp.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Several other factors, such as subject matter, movement, and the distance of the subject from the camera, also influence when a given defocus becomes noticeable.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">The <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_format" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Film format">image format</a> size affects the depth of field. If the original image is enlarged to make the final image, the circle of confusion in the original image must be smaller than that in the final image by the ratio of enlargement. Moreover, the larger the format size, the longer a lens will need to be to capture the same framing as a smaller format. In motion pictures, for example, a frame with a 12 degree horizontal field of view will require a 50 mm lens on 16 mm film, a 100 mm lens on 35 mm film, and a 250 mm lens on 65 mm film. Conversely, using the same focal length lens with each of these formats will yield a progressively wider image as the film format gets larger: a 50 mm lens has a horizontal field of view of 12 degrees on 16 mm film, 23.6 degrees on 35 mm film, and 55.6 degrees on 65 mm film. What this all means is that because the larger formats require longer lenses than the smaller ones, they will accordingly have a smaller depth of field. Therefore, compensations in exposure, framing, or subject distance need to be made in order to make one format look like it was filmed in another format.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">For a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/35_mm_film" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="35 mm film">35 mm</a> motion picture, the image area on the negative is roughly 22 mm by 16 mm (0.87 in by 0.63 in). The limit of tolerable error is usually set at 0.05 mm (0.002 in) diameter. For <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/16_mm_film" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="16 mm film">16 mm film</a>, where the image area is smaller, the tolerance is stricter, 0.025 mm (0.001 in). Standard depth-of-field tables are constructed on this basis, although generally 35 mm productions set it at 0.025 mm (0.001 in). Note that the acceptable circle of confusion values for these formats are different because of the relative amount of magnification each format will need in order to be projected on a full-sized movie screen.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">(A table for 35 mm still photography would be somewhat different since more of the film is used for each image and the amount of enlargement is usually much less.)</div><h2 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; color: black; font-size: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.6em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Depth_of_field&action=edit&section=2" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Effect of lens aperture">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Effect_of_lens_aperture">Effect of lens aperture</span></h2><div class="thumb tright" style="background-color: transparent; clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1.3em; margin-left: 1.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><div class="thumbinner" style="background-color: #f9f9f9; border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; font-size: 12px; min-width: 100px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-top: 3px !important; text-align: center; width: 222px;"><a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Depth_of_field_illustration.svg" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="" class="thumbimage" height="163" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Depth_of_field_illustration.svg/220px-Depth_of_field_illustration.svg.png" style="background-color: white; border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-color: initial; border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" width="220" /></a><div class="thumbcaption" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; font-size: 11px; line-height: 1.4em; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-top: 3px !important; text-align: left;"><div class="magnify" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; float: right;"><a class="internal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Depth_of_field_illustration.svg" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; color: #0645ad; display: block; text-decoration: none;" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="http://bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.18/common/images/magnify-clip.png" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; border-width: initial; display: block; vertical-align: middle;" width="15" /></a></div>Effect of aperture on blur and DOF. The points in focus (<b>2</b>) project points onto the image plane (<b>5</b>), but points at different distances (<b>1</b> and <b>3</b>) project blurred images, or <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circle_of_confusion" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Circle of confusion">circles of confusion</a>. Decreasing the aperture size (<b>4</b>) reduces the size of the blur spots for points not in the focused plane, so that the blurring is imperceptible, and all points are within the DOF.</div></div></div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">For a given subject framing and camera position, the DOF is controlled by the lens <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aperture" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Aperture">aperture</a>diameter, which is usually specified as the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F-number" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="F-number">f-number</a>, the ratio of lens <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Focal_length" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Focal length">focal length</a> to aperture diameter. Reducing the aperture diameter (increasing the <var>f</var>-number) increases the DOF; however, it also reduces the amount of light transmitted, and increases <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diffraction" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Diffraction">diffraction</a>, placing a practical limit on the extent to which DOF can be increased by reducing the aperture diameter.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Motion pictures make only limited use of this control; to produce a consistent image quality from shot to shot, cinematographers usually choose a single aperture setting for interiors and another for exteriors, and adjust exposure through the use of camera filters or light levels. Aperture settings are adjusted more frequently in still photography, where variations in depth of field are used to produce a variety of special effects.</div><ul class="gallery" style="display: block; line-height: 1.5em; list-style-image: url(data:image/png; list-style-type: square; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 2px; margin-right: 2px; margin-top: 2px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px; zoom: 1;"><li class="gallerycaption" style="display: block; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0.1em; text-align: center; word-wrap: break-word;">DOF with various apertures</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="border-bottom-color: white; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 2px; border-left-color: white; border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 2px; border-right-color: white; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 2px; border-top-color: white; border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 2px; display: inline-block; margin-bottom: 0.1em; vertical-align: top; width: 155px; zoom: 1;"><div style="width: 155px;"><div class="thumb" style="background-color: #f9f9f9; border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-bottom: 2px; margin-left: 2px; margin-right: 2px; margin-top: 2px; text-align: center; width: 150px;"><div style="margin-bottom: 33.5px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; margin-top: 33.5px;"><a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Aperture_f22.jpg" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="" height="83" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Aperture_f22.jpg/120px-Aperture_f22.jpg" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; display: block; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; margin-top: 0px; vertical-align: middle;" width="120" /></a></div></div><div class="gallerytext" style="font-size: 12px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 4px; padding-right: 4px; padding-top: 2px; word-wrap: break-word;"><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;"><span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', Candara, Georgia, Calibri, Corbel, serif; font-style: italic;">f</span>/22</div></div></div></li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="border-bottom-color: white; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 2px; border-left-color: white; border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 2px; border-right-color: white; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 2px; border-top-color: white; border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 2px; display: inline-block; margin-bottom: 0.1em; vertical-align: top; width: 155px; zoom: 1;"><div style="width: 155px;"><div class="thumb" style="background-color: #f9f9f9; border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-bottom: 2px; margin-left: 2px; margin-right: 2px; margin-top: 2px; text-align: center; width: 150px;"><div style="margin-bottom: 31px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; margin-top: 31px;"><a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Aperture_f8.jpg" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="" height="88" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Aperture_f8.jpg/120px-Aperture_f8.jpg" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; display: block; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; margin-top: 0px; vertical-align: middle;" width="120" /></a></div></div><div class="gallerytext" style="font-size: 12px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 4px; padding-right: 4px; padding-top: 2px; word-wrap: break-word;"><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;"><span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', Candara, Georgia, Calibri, Corbel, serif; font-style: italic;">f</span>/8</div></div></div></li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="border-bottom-color: white; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 2px; border-left-color: white; border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 2px; border-right-color: white; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 2px; border-top-color: white; border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 2px; display: inline-block; margin-bottom: 0.1em; vertical-align: top; width: 155px; zoom: 1;"><div style="width: 155px;"><div class="thumb" style="background-color: #f9f9f9; border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-bottom: 2px; margin-left: 2px; margin-right: 2px; margin-top: 2px; text-align: center; width: 150px;"><div style="margin-bottom: 33px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; margin-top: 33px;"><a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Aperture_f4.jpg" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="" height="84" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Aperture_f4.jpg/120px-Aperture_f4.jpg" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; display: block; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; margin-top: 0px; vertical-align: middle;" width="120" /></a></div></div><div class="gallerytext" style="font-size: 12px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 4px; padding-right: 4px; padding-top: 2px; word-wrap: break-word;"><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;"><span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', Candara, Georgia, Calibri, Corbel, serif; font-style: italic;">f</span>/4</div></div></div></li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="border-bottom-color: white; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 2px; border-left-color: white; border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 2px; border-right-color: white; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 2px; border-top-color: white; border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 2px; display: inline-block; margin-bottom: 0.1em; vertical-align: top; width: 155px; zoom: 1;"><div style="width: 155px;"><div class="thumb" style="background-color: #f9f9f9; border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-bottom: 2px; margin-left: 2px; margin-right: 2px; margin-top: 2px; text-align: center; width: 150px;"><div style="margin-bottom: 30.5px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; margin-top: 30.5px;"><a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Aperture_f2.8.jpg" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="" height="89" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Aperture_f2.8.jpg/120px-Aperture_f2.8.jpg" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; display: block; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; margin-top: 0px; vertical-align: middle;" width="120" /></a></div></div><div class="gallerytext" style="font-size: 12px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 4px; padding-right: 4px; padding-top: 2px; word-wrap: break-word;"><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;"><span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', Candara, Georgia, Calibri, Corbel, serif; font-style: italic;">f</span>/2.8</div></div></div></li>
</ul><h2 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; color: black; font-size: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.6em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Depth_of_field&action=edit&section=3" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Obtaining maximum DOF">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Obtaining_maximum_DOF">Obtaining maximum DOF</span></h2><h3 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; color: black; font-size: 17px; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Depth_of_field&action=edit&section=4" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Lens DOF scales">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Lens_DOF_scales">Lens DOF scales</span></h3><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Many lenses for small- and medium-format cameras include scales that indicate the DOF for a given focus distance and <var>f</var>-number; the 35 mm lens in the image above is typical. That lens includes distance scales in feet and meters; when a marked distance is set opposite the large white index mark, the focus is set to that distance. The DOF scale below the distance scales includes markings on either side of the index that correspond to <var>f</var>-numbers; when the lens is set to a given <var>f</var>-number, the DOF extends between the distances that align with the <var>f</var>-number markings.</div><h3 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; color: black; font-size: 17px; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Depth_of_field&action=edit&section=5" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Zone focusing">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Zone_focusing">Zone focusing</span></h3><div class="thumb tright" style="background-color: transparent; clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1.3em; margin-left: 1.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><div class="thumbinner" style="background-color: #f9f9f9; border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; font-size: 12px; min-width: 100px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-top: 3px !important; text-align: center; width: 222px;"><a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:DOF_scale_detail.png" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="" class="thumbimage" height="151" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/DOF_scale_detail.png/220px-DOF_scale_detail.png" style="background-color: white; border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-color: initial; border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" width="220" /></a><div class="thumbcaption" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; font-size: 11px; line-height: 1.4em; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-top: 3px !important; text-align: left;"><div class="magnify" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; float: right;"><a class="internal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:DOF_scale_detail.png" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; color: #0645ad; display: block; text-decoration: none;" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="http://bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.18/common/images/magnify-clip.png" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; border-width: initial; display: block; vertical-align: middle;" width="15" /></a></div>Detail from the lens shown above. The point half-way between the 1 m and 2 m marks represents approximately 1.3 m.</div></div></div><div class="rellink boilerplate seealso" style="font-style: italic; margin-bottom: 0.5em; padding-left: 2em;">See also: <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zone_focus" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Zone focus">Zone focus</a></div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">When the 35 mm lens above is set to <var>f</var>/11 and focused at approximately 1.3 m, the DOF (a “zone” of acceptable sharpness) extends from 1 m to 2 m. Conversely, the required focus and <var>f</var>-number can be determined from the desired DOF limits by locating the near and far DOF limits on the lens distance scale and setting focus so that the index mark is centered between the near and far distance marks; the required <var>f</var>-number is determined by finding the markings on the DOF scale that are closest to the near and far distance marks (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_of_field#CITEREFRay1994" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">Ray 1994</a>, 315). For the 35 mm lens above, if it were desired for the DOF to extend from 1 m to 2 m, focus would be set so that index mark was centered between the marks for those distances, and the aperture would be set to <var>f</var>/11. The focus so determined would be about 1.3 m, the approximate <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harmonic_mean" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Harmonic mean">harmonic mean</a> of the near and far distances;<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-1" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_of_field#cite_note-1" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>2<span>]</span></a></sup> see the section <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_of_field#Focus_and_f-number_from_DOF_limits" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">Focus and <i>f</i>-number from DOF limits</a> for additional discussion. If the marks for the near and far distances fall outside the marks for the largest <var>f</var>-number on the DOF scale, the desired DOF cannot be obtained; for example, with the 35 mm lens above, it is not possible to have the DOF extend from 0.7 m to infinity.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">The DOF limits can be determined visually, by focusing on the farthest object to be within the DOF and noting the distance mark on the lens distance scale, and repeating the process for the nearest object to be within the DOF.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Some distance scales have markings for only a few distances; for example, the 35 mm lens above shows only 3 ft and 5 ft on its upper scale. Using other distances for DOF limits requires visual interpolation between marked distances; because the distance scale is nonlinear, accurate interpolation can be difficult. In most cases, English and metric distance markings are not coincident, so using both scales to note focused distances can sometimes lessen the need for interpolation. Many <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autofocus" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Autofocus">autofocus</a> lenses have smaller distance and DOF scales and fewer markings than do comparable manual-focus lenses, so that determining focus and <var>f</var>-number from the scales on an autofocus lens may be more difficult than with a comparable manual-focus lens. In most cases, determining these settings using the lens DOF scales on an autofocus lens requires that the lens or camera body be set to manual focus.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-2" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_of_field#cite_note-2" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>3<span>]</span></a></sup></div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">On a view camera, the focus and <var>f</var>-number can be obtained by measuring the <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_of_field#Focus_and_f-number_from_DOF_limits" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Depth of field">focus spread</a></i> and performing simple calculations; the procedure is described in more detail in the section <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_of_field#Focus_and_f-number_from_DOF_limits" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Depth of field">Focus and <var>f</var>-number from DOF limits</a>. Some view cameras include DOF calculators that indicate focus and <var>f</var>-number without the need for any calculations by the photographer (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_of_field#CITEREFTillmanns1997" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">Tillmanns 1997</a>, 67–68; <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_of_field#CITEREFRay2002" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">Ray 2002</a>, 230–31).</div><h3 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; color: black; font-size: 17px; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Depth_of_field&action=edit&section=6" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Hyperfocal distance">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Hyperfocal_distance">Hyperfocal distance</span></h3><div class="infobox" style="background-color: #f9f9f9; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; clear: right; color: black; float: right; font-size: 11px; line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.5em; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: left; width: 512px;"><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;"><map id="timeline_f31f37c795d48399bccb8afc1063b2c9" name="timeline_f31f37c795d48399bccb8afc1063b2c9"></map><img src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/timeline/f31f37c795d48399bccb8afc1063b2c9.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; vertical-align: middle;" usemap="#timeline_f31f37c795d48399bccb8afc1063b2c9" /></div><hr style="background-color: #aaaaaa; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; color: #aaaaaa; height: 1px; margin-bottom: 0.2em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.2em;" /><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;"><strong class="selflink">Depths of field</strong> of 3 ideal <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lens_(optics)" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Lens (optics)">lenses</a> of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Focal_length" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Focal length">focal lengths</a>, <i>f</i><sub style="line-height: 1em;">1</sub>, <i>f</i><sub style="line-height: 1em;">2</sub> and <i>f</i><sub style="line-height: 1em;">3</sub>, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F-number" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="F-number">f-numbers</a> <i>N</i><sub style="line-height: 1em;">1</sub>, <i>N</i><sub style="line-height: 1em;">2</sub> and <i>N</i><sub style="line-height: 1em;">3</sub> when focused at objects at different distances. <i>H</i><sub style="line-height: 1em;">1</sub>, <i>H</i><sub style="line-height: 1em;">2</sub> and <i>H</i><sub style="line-height: 1em;">3</sub> denote their respective <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperfocal_distance" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Hyperfocal distance">hyperfocal distances</a>(using <i>Definition 1</i> in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperfocal_distance" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Hyperfocal distance">that article</a>) with a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circle_of_confusion" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Circle of confusion">circle of confusion</a> of 0.03 mm diameter. The darker bars show how that, for fixed subject distance, the depth of field is increased by using a shorter focal length or smaller aperture. The second topmost bar of each set illustrates the configuration for a <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fixed_focus" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Fixed focus">fixed focus</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camera" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Camera">camera</a> with the focus permanently set at the hyperfocal distance to maximise the depth of field.</div></div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">The <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperfocal_distance" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Hyperfocal distance">hyperfocal distance</a> is the nearest focus distance at which the DOF extends to infinity; focusing the camera at the hyperfocal distance results in the largest possible depth of field for a given <var>f</var>-number (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_of_field#CITEREFRay2000" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">Ray 2000</a>, 55).</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Focusing <i>beyond</i> the hyperfocal distance does not increase the far DOF (which already extends to infinity), but it does decrease the DOF in front of the subject, decreasing the total DOF. Some photographers consider this wasting DOF; however, see <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_of_field#Object_field_methods" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">Object field methods</a> below for a rationale for doing so.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">If the lens includes a DOF scale, the hyperfocal distance can be set by aligning the infinity mark on the distance scale with the mark on the DOF scale corresponding to the <var>f</var>-number to which the lens is set. For example, with the 35 mm lens shown above set to <var>f</var>/11, aligning the infinity mark with the ‘11’ to the left of the index mark on the DOF scale would set the focus to the hyperfocal distance.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Focusing on the hyperfocal distance is a special case of zone focusing in which the far limit of DOF is at infinity.</div><h3 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; color: black; font-size: 17px; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Depth_of_field&action=edit&section=7" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Object field methods">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Object_field_methods">Object field methods</span></h3><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Traditional depth-of-field formulas and tables assume equal circles of confusion for near and far objects. Some authors, such as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_of_field#CITEREFMerklinger1992" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">Merklinger (1992)</a>,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-3" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_of_field#cite_note-3" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>4<span>]</span></a></sup> have suggested that distant objects often need to be much sharper to be clearly recognizable, whereas closer objects, being larger on the film, do not need to be so sharp. The loss of detail in distant objects may be particularly noticeable with extreme enlargements. Achieving this additional sharpness in distant objects usually requires focusing beyond the hyperfocal distance, sometimes almost at infinity. For example, if photographing a cityscape with a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bollard#Road_bollards" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Bollard">traffic bollard</a> in the foreground, this approach, termed the <i>object field method</i> by Merklinger, would recommend focusing very close to infinity, and stopping down to make the bollard sharp enough. With this approach, foreground objects cannot always be made perfectly sharp, but the loss of sharpness in near objects may be acceptable if recognizability of distant objects is paramount.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Other authors (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_of_field#CITEREFAdams1980" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">Adams 1980</a>, 51) have taken the opposite position, maintaining that slight unsharpness in foreground objects is usually more disturbing than slight unsharpness in distant parts of a scene.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moritz_von_Rohr" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Moritz von Rohr">Moritz von Rohr</a> also used an object field method, but unlike Merklinger, he used the conventional criterion of a maximum circle of confusion diameter in the image plane, leading to unequal front and rear depths of field.</div><h2 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; color: black; font-size: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.6em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Depth_of_field&action=edit&section=8" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Limited DOF: selective focus">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Limited_DOF:_selective_focus">Limited DOF: selective focus</span></h2><div class="thumb tright" style="background-color: transparent; clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1.3em; margin-left: 1.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><div class="thumbinner" style="background-color: #f9f9f9; border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; font-size: 12px; min-width: 100px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-top: 3px !important; text-align: center; width: 222px;"><a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Jonquil_flowers_at_f32.jpg" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="" class="thumbimage" height="145" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Jonquil_flowers_at_f32.jpg/220px-Jonquil_flowers_at_f32.jpg" style="background-color: white; border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-color: initial; border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" width="220" /></a><div class="thumbcaption" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; font-size: 11px; line-height: 1.4em; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-top: 3px !important; text-align: left;"><div class="magnify" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; float: right;"><a class="internal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Jonquil_flowers_at_f32.jpg" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; color: #0645ad; display: block; text-decoration: none;" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="http://bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.18/common/images/magnify-clip.png" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; border-width: initial; display: block; vertical-align: middle;" width="15" /></a></div>At <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', Candara, Georgia, Calibri, Corbel, serif; font-style: italic;">f</span>/32, the background competes for the viewer’s attention.</div></div></div><div class="thumb tright" style="background-color: transparent; clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1.3em; margin-left: 1.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><div class="thumbinner" style="background-color: #f9f9f9; border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; font-size: 12px; min-width: 100px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-top: 3px !important; text-align: center; width: 222px;"><a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Jonquil_flowers_at_f5.jpg" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="" class="thumbimage" height="145" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Jonquil_flowers_at_f5.jpg/220px-Jonquil_flowers_at_f5.jpg" style="background-color: white; border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-color: initial; border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" width="220" /></a><div class="thumbcaption" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; font-size: 11px; line-height: 1.4em; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-top: 3px !important; text-align: left;"><div class="magnify" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; float: right;"><a class="internal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Jonquil_flowers_at_f5.jpg" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; color: #0645ad; display: block; text-decoration: none;" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="http://bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.18/common/images/magnify-clip.png" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; border-width: initial; display: block; vertical-align: middle;" width="15" /></a></div>At <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', Candara, Georgia, Calibri, Corbel, serif; font-style: italic;">f</span>/5.6, the flowers are isolated from the background.</div></div></div><div class="thumb tright" style="background-color: transparent; clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1.3em; margin-left: 1.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><div class="thumbinner" style="background-color: #f9f9f9; border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; font-size: 12px; min-width: 100px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-top: 3px !important; text-align: center; width: 222px;"><a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kittyplya03042006.JPG" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="" class="thumbimage" height="147" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Kittyplya03042006.JPG/220px-Kittyplya03042006.JPG" style="background-color: white; border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-color: initial; border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" width="220" /></a><div class="thumbcaption" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; font-size: 11px; line-height: 1.4em; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-top: 3px !important; text-align: left;"><div class="magnify" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; float: right;"><a class="internal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kittyplya03042006.JPG" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; color: #0645ad; display: block; text-decoration: none;" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="http://bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.18/common/images/magnify-clip.png" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; border-width: initial; display: block; vertical-align: middle;" width="15" /></a></div>At <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', Candara, Georgia, Calibri, Corbel, serif; font-style: italic;">f</span>/2.8, the cat is isolated from the background.</div></div></div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Depth of field can be anywhere from a fraction of a millimeter to virtually infinite. In some cases, such as landscapes, it may be desirable to have the entire image sharp, and a large DOF is appropriate. In other cases, artistic considerations may dictate that only a part of the image be in focus, emphasizing the subject while de-emphasizing the background, perhaps giving only a suggestion of the environment (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_of_field#CITEREFLangford1973" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">Langford 1973</a>, 81). For example, a common technique in<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melodrama" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Melodrama">melodramas</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horror_film" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Horror film">horror films</a> is a closeup of a person's face, with someone just behind that person visible but out of focus. A <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portrait" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Portrait">portrait</a> or <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macro_photography" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Macro photography">close-up</a> still photograph might use a small DOF to isolate the subject from a distracting background. The use of limited DOF to emphasize one part of an image is known as <i>selective focus</i>, <i>differential focus</i> or <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shallow_focus" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Shallow focus">shallow focus</a></i>.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Although a small DOF implies that other parts of the image will be unsharp, it does not, by itself, determine <i>how</i> unsharp those parts will be. The amount of background (or foreground) blur depends on the distance from the plane of focus, so if a background is close to the subject, it may be difficult to blur sufficiently even with a small DOF. In practice, the lens <var>f</var>-number is usually adjusted until the background or foreground is acceptably blurred, often without direct concern for the DOF.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Sometimes, however, it is desirable to have the entire subject sharp while ensuring that the background is sufficiently unsharp. When the distance between subject and background is fixed, as is the case with many scenes, the DOF and the amount of background blur are not independent. Although it is not always possible to achieve both the desired subject sharpness and the desired background unsharpness, several techniques can be used to increase the separation of subject and background.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">For a given scene and subject magnification, the background blur increases with lens focal length. If it is not important that background objects be unrecognizable, background de-emphasis can be increased by using a lens of longer focal length and increasing the subject distance to maintain the same magnification. This technique requires that sufficient space in front of the subject be available; moreover, the perspective of the scene changes because of the different camera position, and this may or may not be acceptable.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">The situation is not as simple if it is important that a background object, such as a sign, be unrecognizable. The magnification of background objects also increases with focal length, so with the technique just described, there is little change in the recognizability of background objects.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-4" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_of_field#cite_note-4" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>5<span>]</span></a></sup>However, a lens of longer focal length may still be of some help; because of the narrower angle of view, a slight change of camera position may suffice to eliminate the distracting object from the field of view.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Although tilt and swing are normally used to maximize the part of the image that is within the DOF, they also can be used, in combination with a small <var>f</var>-number, to give selective focus to a plane that isn't perpendicular to the lens axis. With this technique, it is possible to have objects at greatly different distances from the camera in sharp focus and yet have a very shallow DOF. The effect can be interesting because it differs from what most viewers are accustomed to seeing.</div><h2 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; color: black; font-size: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.6em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Depth_of_field&action=edit&section=9" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Near:far distribution">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Near:far_distribution">Near:far distribution</span></h2><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">The DOF beyond the subject is always greater than the DOF in front of the subject. When the subject is at the hyperfocal distance or beyond, the far DOF is infinite, so the ratio is 1:∞; as the subject distance decreases, near:far DOF ratio increases, approaching unity at high magnification. For large apertures at typical portrait distances, the ratio is still close to 1:1. The oft-cited rule that 1/3 of the DOF is in front of the subject and 2/3 is beyond (a 1:2 ratio) is true only when the subject distance is 1/3 the hyperfocal distance.</div><h2 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; color: black; font-size: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.6em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Depth_of_field&action=edit&section=10" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: DOF vs. format size">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="DOF_vs._format_size">DOF vs. format size</span></h2><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">The comparative DOFs of two different format sizes depend on the conditions of the comparison; the DOF for the smaller format can be either more than or less than that for the larger format. In the discussion that follows, it is assumed that the final images from both formats are the same size, are viewed from the same distance, and are judged with the same <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circle_of_confusion" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Circle of confusion">circle of confusion</a> criterion.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Derivations of the effects of format size are given under <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_of_field#Derivation_of_the_DOF_formulas" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">Derivation of the DOF formulas</a>.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;"><b>“Same picture” for both formats</b><br />
For the common “same picture” comparison, i.e., the <i>same camera position and angle of view</i>, DOF is, to a first approximation, inversely proportional to format size (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_of_field#CITEREFStroebel1976" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">Stroebel 1976</a>, 139). More precisely, if photographs with the same final-image size are taken in two different camera formats at the same subject distance with the same angle of view and <i>f</i>-number, the DOF is, to a first approximation, inversely proportional to the format size. Though commonly used when comparing formats, the approximation is valid only when the subject distance is large in comparison with the focal length of the larger format and small in comparison with the hyperfocal distance of the smaller format.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">To maintain the same angle of view, the lens focal lengths must be in proportion to the format sizes. Assuming, for purposes of comparison, that the 4×5 format is four times the size of 35 mm format, if a 4×5 camera used a 300 mm lens, a 35 mm camera would need a 75 mm lens for the same field of view. For the same <i>f</i>-number, the image made with the 35 mm camera would have four times the DOF of the image made with the 4×5 camera.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;"><b>Same focal length for both formats</b><br />
Many small-format digital SLR camera systems allow using many of the same lenses on both full-frame and “cropped format” cameras. If the subject distance is adjusted to provide the <i>same field of view</i> at the subject, at the same <i>f</i>-number and final-image size, the smaller format has <i>more</i> DOF, as with the “same picture” comparison above. But the pictures from the two formats will differ because of the different angles of view and the different viewpoints.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">If pictures are taken from the <i>same distance</i> using the same lens and <i>f</i>-number, and the final images are the same size, the original image (that recorded on the film or electronic sensor) from the smaller format requires greater enlargement for the same size final image, and the smaller format has <i>less</i> DOF. The pictures from the two formats will differ because of the different angles of view. If the larger format is cropped to the captured area of the smaller format, the final images will have the same angle of view, have been given the same enlargement, and have the same DOF.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;"><b>Cropping</b><br />
Cropping an image and enlarging to the same size final image as an uncropped image taken under the same conditions with a smaller format is equivalent to using the smaller format; the cropped image has less DOF than the original image from the larger format (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_of_field#CITEREFStroebel1976" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">Stroebel 1976</a>, 134, 136–37).</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;"><b>Same DOF for both formats</b><br />
In many cases, the DOF is fixed by the requirements of the desired image. For a given DOF and field of view, the required <i>f</i>-number is proportional to the format size. For example, if a 35 mm camera required <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', Candara, Georgia, Calibri, Corbel, serif; font-style: italic;">f</span>/11, a 4×5 camera would require <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', Candara, Georgia, Calibri, Corbel, serif; font-style: italic;">f</span>/45 to give the same DOF. For the same ISO speed, the exposure time on the 4×5 would be sixteen times as long; if the 35 camera required 1/250 second, the 4×5 camera would require 1/15 second. The longer exposure time with the larger camera might result in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motion_blur" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Motion blur">motion blur</a>, especially with windy conditions, a moving subject, or an unsteady camera.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Adjusting the <i>f</i>-number to the camera format is equivalent to maintaining the same absolute aperture diameter; when set to the same absolute aperture diameters, both formats have the same DOF.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;"><b>Advantages and disadvantages of greater DOF</b><br />
The greater DOF with the smaller format when taking the “same picture” can be either an advantage or a disadvantage, depending on the desired effect. For the same amount of foreground and background blur, a small-format camera requires a smaller <i>f</i>-number and allows a shorter exposure time than a large-format camera; however, many point-and-shoot digital cameras cannot provide a very shallow DOF. For example, a point-and-shoot digital camera with a 1/1.8″ sensor (7.18 mm × 5.32 mm) at a normal focal length and <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', Candara, Georgia, Calibri, Corbel, serif; font-style: italic;">f</span>/2.8 has the same DOF as a 35 mm camera with a normal lens at <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', Candara, Georgia, Calibri, Corbel, serif; font-style: italic;">f</span>/13.</div><h2 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; color: black; font-size: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.6em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Depth_of_field&action=edit&section=11" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Camera movements and DOF">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Camera_movements_and_DOF">Camera movements and DOF</span></h2><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">When the lens axis is perpendicular to the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_plane" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Film plane">image plane</a>, as is normally the case, the plane of focus (POF) is parallel to the image plane, and the DOF extends between parallel planes on either side of the POF. When the lens axis is not perpendicular to the image plane, the POF is no longer parallel to the image plane; the ability to rotate the POF is known as the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scheimpflug_principle" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Scheimpflug principle">Scheimpflug principle</a>. Rotation of the POF is accomplished with <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/View_camera#Movements" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="View camera">camera movements</a> (tilt, a rotation of the lens about a horizontal axis, or swing, a rotation about a vertical axis). Tilt and swing are available on most <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/View_camera" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="View camera">view cameras</a>, and are also available with specific lenses on some small- and medium-format cameras.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">When the POF is rotated, the near and far limits of DOF are no longer parallel; the DOF becomes wedge-shaped, with the apex of the wedge nearest the camera (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_of_field#CITEREFMerklinger1993" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">Merklinger 1993</a>, 31–32; <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_of_field#CITEREFTillmanns1997" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">Tillmanns 1997</a>, 71). With tilt, the height of the DOF increases with distance from the camera; with swing, the width of the DOF increases with distance.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">In some cases, rotating the POF can better fit the DOF to the scene, and achieve the required sharpness at a smaller <var>f</var>-number. Alternatively, rotating the POF, in combination with a small <var>f</var>-number, can <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tilted_plane_focus" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Tilted plane focus">minimize</a> the part of an image that is within the DOF.</div><h2 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; color: black; font-size: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.6em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Depth_of_field&action=edit&section=12" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: DOF formulas">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="DOF_formulas">DOF formulas</span></h2><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">The basis of these formulas is given in the section <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_of_field#Derivation_of_the_DOF_formulas" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">Derivation of the DOF formulas</a>;<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-5" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_of_field#cite_note-5" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>6<span>]</span></a></sup> refer to the diagram in that section for illustration of the quantities discussed below.</div><h3 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; color: black; font-size: 17px; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Depth_of_field&action=edit&section=13" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Hyperfocal Distance">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Hyperfocal_Distance_2">Hyperfocal Distance</span></h3><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Let <span class="texhtml" dir="ltr" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;"><i>f</i></span> be the lens <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Focal_length" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Focal length">focal length</a>, <span class="texhtml" dir="ltr" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;"><i>N</i></span> be the lens <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F-number" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="F-number"><var>f</var>-number</a>, and <span class="texhtml" dir="ltr" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;"><i>c</i></span> be the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circle_of_confusion" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Circle of confusion">circle of confusion</a> for a given <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_format" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Film format">image format</a>. The hyperfocal distance <span class="texhtml" dir="ltr" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;"><i>H</i></span> is given by</div><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><img alt="H \approx \frac {f^2} {N c} \,." class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/c/4/e/c4e9780064012b8891ebc70edc5f3fb7.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" /></dd></dl><h3 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; color: black; font-size: 17px; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Depth_of_field&action=edit&section=14" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Moderate-to-large distances">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Moderate-to-large_distances">Moderate-to-large distances</span></h3><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Let <span class="texhtml" dir="ltr" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;"><i>s</i></span> be the distance at which the camera is focused (the “subject distance”). When <span class="texhtml" dir="ltr" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;"><i>s</i></span> is large in comparison with the lens <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Focal_length" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Focal length">focal length</a>, the distance <span class="texhtml" dir="ltr" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;"><i>D</i><sub style="line-height: 1em;">N</sub></span> from the camera to the near limit of DOF and the distance <span class="texhtml" dir="ltr" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;"><i>D</i><sub style="line-height: 1em;">F</sub></span> from the camera to the far limit of DOF are</div><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><img alt="D_{\mathrm N} \approx \frac {H s} {H + s}" class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/a/1/0/a1015da206f3ca83e0b4013dcf1fb1d1.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" /></dd></dl><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">and</div><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><img alt="D_{\mathrm F} \approx \frac {H s} {H - s} \mbox{ for } s < H \,." class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/3/d/d/3dd5632cdad928d3b9c2373a4278e164.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" /></dd></dl><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">The depth of field <span class="texhtml" dir="ltr" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;"><i>D</i><sub style="line-height: 1em;">F</sub> − <i>D</i><sub style="line-height: 1em;">N</sub></span> is</div><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><img alt="
\mathrm {DOF} \approx \frac {2 Hs^2}
{H^2 - s^2} \mbox{ for } s < H \,.
" class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/3/4/e/34ea225651d5a96f08f5c1a6d19cd1a1.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" /></dd></dl><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Substituting for <span class="texhtml" dir="ltr" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;"><i>H</i></span> and rearranging, DOF can be expressed as</div><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><img alt="\mathrm {DOF} \approx \frac {2 N c f^2 s^2} {f^4 - N^2 c^2 s^2} \,." class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/7/7/d/77d46a8b41790040f6615b2a62a887ee.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" /></dd></dl><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Thus, for a given <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_format" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Film format">image format</a>, depth of field is determined by three factors: the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Focal_length" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Focal length">focal length</a> of the lens, the <var>f</var>-number of the lens opening (the<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aperture" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Aperture">aperture</a>), and the camera-to-subject distance.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;"><br />
When the subject distance is the hyperfocal distance,</div><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><img alt="D_{\mathrm F} = \infty" class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/5/3/0/53024217bd8b0cee73b9f3ea3c09c4ec.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" /></dd></dl><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">and</div><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><img alt="D_{\mathrm N} = \frac H 2 \,." class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/8/3/5/835fa07495e8d995652203b54372b60f.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" /></dd></dl><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">For <img alt="s \ge H" class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/8/f/0/8f09d1c59f537e790e5309b83325925a.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; vertical-align: middle;" />, the far limit of DOF is at infinity and the DOF is infinite; of course, only objects at or beyond the near limit of DOF will be recorded with acceptable sharpness.</div><h3 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; color: black; font-size: 17px; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Depth_of_field&action=edit&section=15" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Close-up">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Close-up">Close-up</span></h3><div class="thumb tright" style="background-color: transparent; clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1.3em; margin-left: 1.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><div class="thumbinner" style="background-color: #f9f9f9; border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; font-size: 12px; min-width: 100px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-top: 3px !important; text-align: center; width: 222px;"><a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Depth_of_field_Nov_2008.jpg" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="" class="thumbimage" height="310" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b7/Depth_of_field_Nov_2008.jpg/220px-Depth_of_field_Nov_2008.jpg" style="background-color: white; border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-color: initial; border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" width="220" /></a><div class="thumbcaption" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; font-size: 11px; line-height: 1.4em; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-top: 3px !important; text-align: left;"><div class="magnify" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; float: right;"><a class="internal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Depth_of_field_Nov_2008.jpg" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; color: #0645ad; display: block; text-decoration: none;" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="http://bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.18/common/images/magnify-clip.png" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; border-width: initial; display: block; vertical-align: middle;" width="15" /></a></div>The <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_circuit" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Integrated circuit">integrated circuit</a> package, which is in focus in this macro shot, is 2.5 mm higher than the circuit board it is mounted on. In<a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macro_photography" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Macro photography">macro photography</a> objects at even small distances from the plane of focus can be unsharp. At <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', Candara, Georgia, Calibri, Corbel, serif; font-style: italic;">f</span>/32 every object is within the DOF, whereas the closer to <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', Candara, Georgia, Calibri, Corbel, serif; font-style: italic;">f</span>/5 the aperture gets, the fewer the objects that are sharp. There is a tradeoff, however: at <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', Candara, Georgia, Calibri, Corbel, serif; font-style: italic;">f</span>/32, the lettering on the IC package is noticeably softer than at <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', Candara, Georgia, Calibri, Corbel, serif; font-style: italic;">f</span>/5 because of diffraction. At<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', Candara, Georgia, Calibri, Corbel, serif; font-style: italic;">f</span>/5 the small dust particles at the bottom right corner form blur spots in the shape of the aperture stop. The images were taken with a 105 mm <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', Candara, Georgia, Calibri, Corbel, serif; font-style: italic;">f</span>/2.8 <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macro_lens" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Macro lens">macro lens</a>.</div></div></div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">When the subject distance <span class="texhtml" dir="ltr" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;"><i>s</i></span> approaches the focal length, using the formulas given above can result in significant errors. For close-up work, the hyperfocal distance has little applicability, and it usually is more convenient to express DOF in terms of image magnification. Let <span class="texhtml" dir="ltr" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;"><i>m</i></span> be the magnification; when the subject distance is small in comparison with the hyperfocal distance,</div><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><img alt="\mathrm {DOF} \approx 2 N c \, \frac {m + 1} {m^2} \,," class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/5/b/9/5b93709b3b0d4740d5e405a255832834.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" /></dd></dl><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">so that for a given magnification, DOF is independent of focal length. Stated otherwise, for the same subject magnification, at the same <i>f</i>-number, all focal lengths used on a given <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_format" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Film format">image format</a>give approximately the same DOF. This statement is true <i>only</i> when the subject distance is small in comparison with the hyperfocal distance, however.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">The discussion thus far has assumed a symmetrical lens for which the entrance and exit <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pupil_(optics)" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Pupil (optics)">pupils</a>coincide with the front and rear <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nodal_point#Nodal_points" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Nodal point">nodal planes</a>, and for which the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pupil_magnification" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Pupil magnification">pupil magnification</a> (the ratio of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exit_pupil" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Exit pupil">exit pupil</a> diameter to that of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entrance_pupil" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Entrance pupil">entrance pupil</a>)<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-6" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_of_field#cite_note-6" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>7<span>]</span></a></sup> is unity. Although this assumption usually is reasonable for large-format lenses, it often is invalid for medium- and small-format lenses.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">When <img alt="s \ll H" class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/c/d/2/cd245d21826de073b51e762c352705d6.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; vertical-align: middle;" />, the DOF for an asymmetrical lens is</div><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><img alt="\mathrm {DOF} \approx \frac {2 N c \left ( 1 + m/P \right )}{m^2} \,," class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/f/1/4/f140b1ba773455229486e0ec810a116c.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" /></dd></dl><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">where <span class="texhtml" dir="ltr" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;"><i>P</i></span> is the pupil magnification. When the pupil magnification is unity, this equation reduces to that for a symmetrical lens.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Except for close-up and macro photography, the effect of lens asymmetry is minimal. At unity magnification, however, the errors from neglecting the pupil magnification can be significant. Consider a telephoto lens with <span class="texhtml" dir="ltr" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;"><i>P</i> = 0.5</span> and a retrofocus wide-angle lens with <span class="texhtml" dir="ltr" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;"><i>P</i> = 2</span>, at <span class="texhtml" dir="ltr" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;"><i>m</i> = 1.0</span>. The asymmetrical-lens formula gives <span class="texhtml" dir="ltr" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;">DOF = 6<i>N</i><i>c</i></span> and <span class="texhtml" dir="ltr" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;">DOF = 3<i>N</i><i>c</i></span>, respectively. The symmetrical-lens formula gives <span class="texhtml" dir="ltr" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;">DOF = 4<i>N</i><i>c</i></span> in either case. The errors are −33% and 33%, respectively.</div><h3 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; color: black; font-size: 17px; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Depth_of_field&action=edit&section=16" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Focus and f-number from DOF limits">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Focus_and_f-number_from_DOF_limits">Focus and <var>f</var>-number from DOF limits</span></h3><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">For given near and far DOF limits <span class="texhtml" dir="ltr" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;"><i>D</i><sub style="line-height: 1em;">N</sub></span> and <span class="texhtml" dir="ltr" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;"><i>D</i><sub style="line-height: 1em;">F</sub></span>, the required <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F-number" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="F-number"><var>f</var>-number</a> is smallest when focus is set to</div><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><img alt="s = \frac {2 D_{\mathrm N} D_{\mathrm F} }
{D_{\mathrm N} + D_{\mathrm F} } \,,
" class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/3/e/1/3e1a29e0e871eaaa2b2c29ee6f412075.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" /></dd></dl><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harmonic_mean" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Harmonic mean">harmonic mean</a> of the near and far distances. When the subject distance is large in comparison with the lens focal length, the required <var>f</var>-number is</div><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><img alt="N \approx \frac {f^2} {c}
\frac {D_{\mathrm F} - D_{\mathrm N} } {2 D_{\mathrm N} D_{\mathrm F} } \,.
" class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/5/5/c/55cb277153a25ee3bb7ab017af8d783e.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" /></dd></dl><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">When the far limit of DOF is at infinity,</div><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><span class="texhtml" dir="ltr" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;"><i>s</i> = 2<i>D</i><sub style="line-height: 1em;">N</sub></span></dd></dl><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">and</div><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><img alt="N \approx \frac {f^2} c \frac 1 { 2 D_\mathrm N }\,." class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/3/c/a/3caf15615cc84d689a3a93d6638bb83e.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" /></dd></dl><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">In practice, these settings usually are determined on the image side of the lens, using measurements on the bed or rail with a view camera, or using lens DOF scales on manual-focus lenses for small- and medium-format cameras. If <span class="texhtml" dir="ltr" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;"><i>v</i><sub style="line-height: 1em;">N</sub></span> and <span class="texhtml" dir="ltr" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;"><i>v</i><sub style="line-height: 1em;">F</sub></span> are the image distances that correspond to the near and far limits of DOF, the required <var>f</var>-number is minimized when the image distance <span class="texhtml" dir="ltr" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;"><i>v</i></span> is</div><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><img alt="v \approx \frac { v_{\mathrm N} + v_{\mathrm F} } {2}
= v_{\mathrm F} + \frac { v_{\mathrm N} - v_{\mathrm F} } {2} \,.
" class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/8/c/6/8c684ba7357f3c78427d461d77d6c12c.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" /></dd></dl><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">In practical terms, focus is set to halfway between the near and far image distances. The required <var>f</var>-number is</div><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><img alt="N \approx \frac { v_{\mathrm N} - v_{\mathrm F} } { 2 c } \,." class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/3/a/c/3acaf4471516e47bce6bbd143b981541.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" /></dd></dl><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">The image distances are measured from the camera's image plane to the lens's image nodal plane, which is not always easy to locate. In most cases, focus and <var>f</var>-number can be determined with sufficient accuracy using the approximate formulas above, which require only the difference between the near and far image distances; view camera users sometimes refer to the difference <img alt="v_{\mathrm N} \, - \, v_{\mathrm F}" class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/3/a/9/3a92281f9be67405ddbc177b432cae6f.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; vertical-align: middle;" /> as the <i>focus spread</i>(<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_of_field#CITEREFHansma1996" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">Hansma 1996</a>, 55). Most lens DOF scales are based on the same concept.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">The focus spread is related to the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_of_focus" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Depth of focus">depth of focus</a>. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_of_field#CITEREFRay2000" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">Ray (2000</a>, 56) gives two definitions of the latter. The first is the tolerance of the position of the image plane for which an object remains acceptably sharp; the second is that the limits of depth of focus are the image-side conjugates of the near and far limits of DOF. With the first definition, focus spread and depth of focus are usually close in value though conceptually different. With the second definition, focus spread and depth of focus are the same.</div><h3 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; color: black; font-size: 17px; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Depth_of_field&action=edit&section=17" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Foreground and background blur">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Foreground_and_background_blur">Foreground and background blur</span></h3><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">If a subject is at distance <span class="texhtml" dir="ltr" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;"><i>s</i></span> and the foreground or background is at distance <span class="texhtml" dir="ltr" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;"><i>D</i></span>, let the distance between the subject and the foreground or background be indicated by</div><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><img alt="x_\mathrm d = \left | D - s \right | \,." class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/0/7/7/077a28bdfff58523d3cc7b435aa702c0.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" /></dd></dl><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">The blur disk diameter <span class="texhtml" dir="ltr" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;"><i>b</i></span> of a detail at distance <span class="texhtml" dir="ltr" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;"><i>x</i><sub style="line-height: 1em;">d</sub></span> from the subject can be expressed as a function of the focal length <span class="texhtml" dir="ltr" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;"><i>f</i></span>, subject magnification<span class="texhtml" dir="ltr" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;"><i>m</i><sub style="line-height: 1em;">s</sub></span>, and <var>f</var>-number <span class="texhtml" dir="ltr" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;"><i>N</i></span> according to</div><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><img alt="b = \frac {fm_\mathrm s} N \frac { x_\mathrm d } { s \pm x_\mathrm d} \,." class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/6/5/1/651c0c7a15a159bfbe7c0abedb926d71.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" /></dd></dl><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">The minus sign applies to a foreground object, and the plus sign applies to a background object.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">The blur increases with the distance from the subject; when <img alt="b \le c" class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/a/7/5/a751e707cbc9aaf65c9f194ade4301a2.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; vertical-align: middle;" />, the detail is within the depth of field, and the blur is imperceptible. If the detail is only slightly outside the DOF, the blur may be only barely perceptible.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">For a given subject magnification, <var>f</var>-number, and distance from the subject of the foreground or background detail, the degree of detail blur varies with the lens focal length. For a background detail, the blur increases with focal length; for a foreground detail, the blur decreases with focal length. For a given scene, the positions of the subject, foreground, and background usually are fixed, and the distance between subject and the foreground or background remains constant regardless of the camera position; however, to maintain constant magnification, the subject distance must vary if the focal length is changed. For small distance between the foreground or background detail, the effect of focal length is small; for large distance, the effect can be significant. For a reasonably distant background detail, the blur disk diameter is</div><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><img alt="b \approx \frac {fm_\mathrm s} {N} \,," class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/1/0/9/109c6c22777cc3916c3b94516ac3b1ac.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" /></dd></dl><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">depending only on focal length.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">The blur diameter of foreground details is very large if the details are close to the lens.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">The magnification of the detail also varies with focal length; for a given detail, the ratio of the blur disk diameter to imaged size of the detail is independent of focal length, depending only on the detail size and its distance from the subject. This ratio can be useful when it is important that the background be recognizable (as usually is the case in evidence or surveillance photography), or unrecognizable (as might be the case for a pictorial photographer using selective focus to isolate the subject from a distracting background). As a general rule, an object is recognizable if the blur disk diameter is one-tenth to one-fifth the size of the object or smaller (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_of_field#CITEREFWilliams1990" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">Williams 1990</a>, 205),<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-7" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_of_field#cite_note-7" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>8<span>]</span></a></sup> and unrecognizable when the blur disk diameter is the object size or greater.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">The effect of focal length on background blur is illustrated in van Walree's article on <a class="external text" href="http://toothwalker.org/optics/dof.html#backgroundblur" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: url(data:image/png; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #3366bb; padding-right: 13px; text-decoration: none;">Depth of field</a>.</div><h3 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; color: black; font-size: 17px; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Depth_of_field&action=edit&section=18" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Practical complications">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Practical_complications">Practical complications</span></h3><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">The distance scales on most medium- and small-format lenses indicate distance from the camera’s <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_plane" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Film plane">image plane</a>. Most DOF formulas, including those in this article, use the object distance <span class="texhtml" dir="ltr" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;"><i>s</i></span> from the lens’s <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nodal_planes#Focal_points_and_planes" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Nodal planes">front nodal plane</a>, which often is not easy to locate. Moreover, for many zoom lenses and internal-focusing non-zoom lenses, the location of the front nodal plane, as well as focal length, changes with subject distance. When the subject distance is large in comparison with the lens focal length, the exact location of the front nodal plane is not critical; the distance is essentially the same whether measured from the front of the lens, the image plane, or the actual nodal plane. The same is not true for close-up photography; at unity magnification, a slight error in the location of the front nodal plane can result in a DOF error greater than the errors from any approximations in the DOF equations.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">The asymmetrical lens formulas require knowledge of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pupil_magnification" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Pupil magnification">pupil magnification</a>, which usually is not specified for medium- and small-format lenses. The pupil magnification can be estimated by looking into the front and rear of the lens and measuring the diameters of the apparent apertures, and computing the ratio of rear diameter to front diameter (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_of_field#CITEREFShipman1977" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">Shipman 1977</a>, 144). However, for many zoom lenses and internal-focusing non-zoom lenses, the pupil magnification changes with subject distance, and several measurements may be required.</div><h3 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; color: black; font-size: 17px; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Depth_of_field&action=edit&section=19" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Limitations">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Limitations">Limitations</span></h3><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Most DOF formulas, including those discussed in this article, employ several simplifications:</div><ol style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-image: none; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 3.2em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.3em; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paraxial_approximation" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Paraxial approximation">Paraxial</a> (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaussian_optics" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Gaussian optics">Gaussian</a>) optics is assumed, and technically, the formulas are valid only for rays that are infinitesimally close to the lens axis. However, Gaussian optics usually is more than adequate for determining DOF, and non-paraxial formulas are sufficiently complex that requiring their use would make determination of DOF impractical in most cases.</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Lens <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aberration_in_optical_systems" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Aberration in optical systems">aberrations</a> are ignored. Including the effects of aberrations is nearly impossible, because doing so requires knowledge of the specific lens design. Moreover, in well-designed lenses, most aberrations are well corrected, and at least near the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_axis" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Optical axis">optical axis</a>, often are almost negligible when the lens is stopped down 2–3 steps from maximum <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aperture" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Aperture">aperture</a>. Because lenses usually are stopped down at least to this point when DOF is of interest, ignoring aberrations usually is reasonable. Not all aberrations are reduced by stopping down, however, so actual sharpness may be slightly less than predicted by DOF formulas.</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diffraction" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Diffraction">Diffraction</a> is ignored. DOF formulas imply that any arbitrary DOF can be achieved by using a sufficiently large <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F-number" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="F-number"><var>f</var>-number</a>. Because of diffraction, however, this isn't really true, as is discussed further in the section <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_of_field#DOF_and_diffraction" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">DOF and diffraction</a>.</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">For digital capture with color filter array sensors, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demosaicing" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Demosaicing">demosaicing</a> is ignored. Demosaicing alone would normally decrease sharpness, but the demosaicing algorithm used might also include sharpening.</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Post-capture manipulation of the image is ignored. Sharpening via techniques such as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deconvolution" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Deconvolution">deconvolution</a> or <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unsharp_mask" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Unsharp mask">unsharp mask</a> can increase the apparent sharpness in the final image; conversely, <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image_noise_reduction" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Image noise reduction">image noise reduction</a> can reduce sharpness.</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">The resolutions of the imaging medium and the display medium are ignored. If the resolution of either medium is of the same order of magnitude as the optical resolution, the sharpness of the final image is reduced, and optical blurring is harder to detect.</li>
</ol><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">The lens designer cannot restrict analysis to Gaussian optics and cannot ignore lens aberrations. However, the requirements of practical photography are less demanding than those of lens design, and despite the simplifications employed in development of most DOF formulas, these formulas have proven useful in determining camera settings that result in acceptably sharp pictures. It should be recognized that DOF limits are not hard boundaries between sharp and unsharp, and that there is little point in determining DOF limits to a precision of many significant figures.</div><h2 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; color: black; font-size: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.6em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Depth_of_field&action=edit&section=20" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: DOF and diffraction">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="DOF_and_diffraction">DOF and diffraction</span></h2><div class="rellink boilerplate seealso" style="font-style: italic; margin-bottom: 0.5em; padding-left: 2em;">See also: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rayleigh_length" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Rayleigh length">Rayleigh length</a></div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">If the camera position and image framing (i.e., angle of view) have been chosen, the only means of controlling DOF is the lens aperture. Most DOF formulas imply that any arbitrary DOF can be achieved by using a sufficiently large <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F-number" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="F-number"><var>f</var>-number</a>. Because of diffraction, however, this isn't really true. Once a lens is stopped down to where most aberrations are well corrected, stopping down further will decrease sharpness in the plane of focus. At the DOF limits, however, further stopping down decreases the size of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Defocus_aberration" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Defocus aberration">defocus</a> blur spot, and the overall sharpness may still increase. Eventually, the defocus blur spot becomes negligibly small, and further stopping down serves only to decrease sharpness even at DOF limits (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_of_field#CITEREFGibson1975" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">Gibson 1975</a>, 64).</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">There is thus a tradeoff between sharpness in the POF and sharpness at the DOF limits. But the sharpness in the POF is always greater than that at the DOF limits; if the blur at the DOF limits is imperceptible, the blur in the POF is imperceptible as well.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">For general photography, diffraction at DOF limits typically becomes significant only at fairly large <var>f</var>-numbers; because large <var>f</var>-numbers typically require long exposure times, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motion_blur" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Motion blur">motion blur</a> may cause greater loss of sharpness than the loss from diffraction. The size of the diffraction blur spot depends on the effective <var>f</var>-number <img alt="N \left ( 1 + m \right )" class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/1/a/d/1add8f4b41fc3dbb2e11adaf9a4c67d6.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; vertical-align: middle;" />, however, so diffraction is a greater issue in close-up photography, and the tradeoff between DOF and overall sharpness can become quite noticeable (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_of_field#CITEREFGibson1975" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">Gibson 1975</a>, 53; <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_of_field#CITEREFLefkowitz1979" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">Lefkowitz 1979</a>, 84).</div><h3 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; color: black; font-size: 17px; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Depth_of_field&action=edit&section=21" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Optimal f-number">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Optimal_f-number">Optimal <var>f</var>-number</span></h3><div class="rellink boilerplate seealso" style="font-style: italic; margin-bottom: 0.5em; padding-left: 2em;">See also: <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optimal_aperture" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Optimal aperture">Optimal aperture</a></div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">As a lens is stopped down, the defocus blur at the DOF limits decreases but diffraction blur increases. The presence of these two opposing factors implies a point at which the combined blur spot is minimized (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_of_field#CITEREFGibson1975" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">Gibson 1975</a>, 64); at that point, the <var>f</var>-number is optimal for image sharpness. If the final image is viewed under normal conditions (e.g., an 8″×10″ image viewed at 10″), it may suffice to determine the <var>f</var>-number using criteria for minimum required sharpness, and there may be no practical benefit from further reducing the size of the blur spot. But this may not be true if the final image is viewed under more demanding conditions, e.g., a very large final image viewed at normal distance, or a portion of an image enlarged to normal size (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_of_field#CITEREFHansma1996" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">Hansma 1996</a>). Hansma also suggests that the final-image size may not be known when a photograph is taken, and obtaining the maximum practicable sharpness allows the decision to make a large final image to be made at a later time.</div><h3 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; color: black; font-size: 17px; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Depth_of_field&action=edit&section=22" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Determining combined defocus and diffraction">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Determining_combined_defocus_and_diffraction">Determining combined defocus and diffraction</span></h3><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_of_field#CITEREFHansma1996" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">Hansma (1996)</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_of_field#CITEREFPeterson1996" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">Peterson (1996)</a> have discussed determining the combined effects of defocus and diffraction using a root-square combination of the individual blur spots. Hansma's approach determines the <var>f</var>-number that will give the maximum possible sharpness; Peterson's approach determines the minimum <var>f</var>-number that will give the desired sharpness in the final image, and yields a maximum focus spread for which the desired sharpness can be achieved.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-8" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_of_field#cite_note-8" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>9<span>]</span></a></sup> In combination, the two methods can be regarded as giving a maximum and minimum <var>f</var>-number for a given situation, with the photographer free to choose any value within the range, as conditions (e.g., potential motion blur) permit. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_of_field#CITEREFGibson1975" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">Gibson (1975</a>, 64) gives a similar discussion, additionally considering blurring effects of camera lens aberrations, enlarging lens diffraction and aberrations, the negative emulsion, and the printing paper.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-9" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_of_field#cite_note-9" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>10<span>]</span></a></sup> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_of_field#CITEREFCouzin1982" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">Couzin (1982</a>, 1098) gives a formula essentially the same as Hansma’s for optimal <i>f</i>-number, but does not discuss its derivation.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_of_field#CITEREFHopkins1955" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">Hopkins (1955)</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_of_field#CITEREFStokseth1969" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">Stokseth (1969)</a>, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_of_field#CITEREFWilliamsBecklund1989" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">Williams and Becklund (1989)</a> have discussed the combined effects using the <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modulation_transfer_function" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Modulation transfer function">modulation transfer function</a>. Conrad's <a class="external text" href="http://www.largeformatphotography.info/articles/DoFinDepth.pdf" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: url(http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/23/Icons-mini-file_acrobat.gif); background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #3366bb; padding-right: 18px; text-decoration: none;">Depth of Field in Depth</a> (<a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PDF" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="PDF">PDF</a>), and Jacobson's <a class="external text" href="http://www.faqs.org/faqs/rec-photo/lenses/tutorial/" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: url(data:image/png; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #3366bb; padding-right: 13px; text-decoration: none;">Photographic Lenses Tutorial</a> discuss the use of Hopkins's method specifically in regard to DOF.</div><h2 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; color: black; font-size: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.6em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Depth_of_field&action=edit&section=23" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Photolithography">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Photolithography">Photolithography</span></h2><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">In <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semiconductor" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Semiconductor">semiconductor</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photolithography" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Photolithography">photolithography</a> applications, depth of field is extremely important as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_circuit" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Integrated circuit">integrated circuit</a> layout features must be printed with high accuracy at extremely small size. The difficulty is that the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wafer_(electronics)" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Wafer (electronics)">wafer</a> surface is not perfectly flat, but may vary by several <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Micrometre" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Micrometre">micrometres</a>. Even this small variation causes some distortion in the projected image, and results in unwanted variations in the resulting pattern. Thus photolithography engineers take extreme measures to maximize the optical depth of field of the photolithography equipment. To minimize this distortion further, semiconductor manufacturers may use <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_mechanical_polish" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Chemical mechanical polish">chemical mechanical polishing</a> to make the wafer surface even flatter before lithographic patterning.</div><h2 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; color: black; font-size: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.6em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Depth_of_field&action=edit&section=24" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Ophthalmology and optometry">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Ophthalmology_and_optometry">Ophthalmology and optometry</span></h2><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">A person may sometimes experience better vision in daylight than at night because of an increased depth of field due to constriction of the<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pupil" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Pupil">pupil</a> (i.e., <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miosis" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Miosis">miosis</a>).</div><h2 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; color: black; font-size: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.6em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Depth_of_field&action=edit&section=25" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Digital techniques for extending DOF">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Digital_techniques_for_extending_DOF">Digital techniques for extending DOF</span></h2><div class="thumb tright" style="background-color: transparent; clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1.3em; margin-left: 1.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><div class="thumbinner" style="background-color: #f9f9f9; border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; font-size: 12px; min-width: 100px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-top: 3px !important; text-align: center; width: 502px;"><a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Focus_stacking_Tachinid_fly.jpg" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="" class="thumbimage" height="167" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Focus_stacking_Tachinid_fly.jpg/500px-Focus_stacking_Tachinid_fly.jpg" style="background-color: white; border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-color: initial; border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" width="500" /></a><div class="thumbcaption" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; font-size: 11px; line-height: 1.4em; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-top: 3px !important; text-align: left;"><div class="magnify" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; float: right;"><a class="internal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Focus_stacking_Tachinid_fly.jpg" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; color: #0645ad; display: block; text-decoration: none;" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="http://bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.18/common/images/magnify-clip.png" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; border-width: initial; display: block; vertical-align: middle;" width="15" /></a></div>Series of images demonstrating a 6 image <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bracketing#Focus_bracketing" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Bracketing">focus bracket</a> of A Tachinid fly. First two images illustrate typical DOF of a single image at f/10 while the third image is the composite of 6 images.</div></div></div><h3 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; color: black; font-size: 17px; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Depth_of_field&action=edit&section=26" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Focus stacking">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Focus_stacking">Focus stacking</span></h3><div class="rellink relarticle mainarticle" style="font-style: italic; margin-bottom: 0.5em; padding-left: 2em;">Main article: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Focus_stacking" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Focus stacking">Focus stacking</a></div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Focus_stacking" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Focus stacking">Focus stacking</a> is a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_image_processing" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Digital image processing">digital image processing</a>technique which combines multiple images taken at different focus distances to give a resulting image with a greater depth of field than any of the individual source images. Available programs for multi-shot DOF enhancement include Adobe Photoshop, Syncroscopy AutoMontage, PhotoAcute Studio, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helicon_Focus" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Helicon Focus">Helicon Focus</a> and<a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CombineZM" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="CombineZM">CombineZM</a>.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Getting sufficient depth of field can be particularly challenging in macro photography. The images to the right illustrate the extended DOF that can be achieved by combining multiple images.</div><h3 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; color: black; font-size: 17px; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Depth_of_field&action=edit&section=27" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Wavefront coding">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Wavefront_coding">Wavefront coding</span></h3><div class="rellink relarticle mainarticle" style="font-style: italic; margin-bottom: 0.5em; padding-left: 2em;">Main article: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wavefront_coding" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Wavefront coding">Wavefront coding</a></div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wavefront_coding" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Wavefront coding">Wavefront coding</a> is a method that convolves rays in such a way that it provides an image where fields are in focus simultaneously with all planes out of focus by a constant amount.</div><h3 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; color: black; font-size: 17px; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Depth_of_field&action=edit&section=28" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Plenoptic cameras">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Plenoptic_cameras">Plenoptic cameras</span></h3><div class="rellink relarticle mainarticle" style="font-style: italic; margin-bottom: 0.5em; padding-left: 2em;">Main article: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plenoptic_camera" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Plenoptic camera">Plenoptic camera</a></div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">A <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plenoptic_camera" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Plenoptic camera">plenoptic camera</a> uses a microlens array to capture <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/4D_light_field" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="4D light field">4D light field</a> information about a scene.</div><h2 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; color: black; font-size: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.6em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Depth_of_field&action=edit&section=29" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Derivation of the DOF formulas">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Derivation_of_the_DOF_formulas">Derivation of the DOF formulas</span></h2><div class="thumb tright" style="background-color: transparent; clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1.3em; margin-left: 1.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><div class="thumbinner" style="background-color: #f9f9f9; border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; font-size: 12px; min-width: 100px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-top: 3px !important; text-align: center; width: 442px;"><a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:DoF-sym.svg" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="" class="thumbimage" height="236" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/DoF-sym.svg/440px-DoF-sym.svg.png" style="background-color: white; border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-color: initial; border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" width="440" /></a><div class="thumbcaption" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; font-size: 11px; line-height: 1.4em; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-top: 3px !important; text-align: left;"><div class="magnify" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; float: right;"><a class="internal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:DoF-sym.svg" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; color: #0645ad; display: block; text-decoration: none;" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="http://bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.18/common/images/magnify-clip.png" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; border-width: initial; display: block; vertical-align: middle;" width="15" /></a></div>DOF for symmetrical lens.</div></div></div><h3 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; color: black; font-size: 17px; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Depth_of_field&action=edit&section=30" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: DOF limits">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="DOF_limits">DOF limits</span></h3><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">A symmetrical lens is illustrated at right. The subject, at distance <span class="texhtml" dir="ltr" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;"><i>s</i></span>, is in focus at image distance <span class="texhtml" dir="ltr" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;"><i>v</i></span>. Point objects at distances <span class="texhtml" dir="ltr" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;"><i>D</i><sub style="line-height: 1em;">F</sub></span> and <span class="texhtml" dir="ltr" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;"><i>D</i><sub style="line-height: 1em;">N</sub></span> would be in focus at image distances<span class="texhtml" dir="ltr" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;"><i>v</i><sub style="line-height: 1em;">F</sub></span> and <span class="texhtml" dir="ltr" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;"><i>v</i><sub style="line-height: 1em;">N</sub></span>, respectively; at image distance <span class="texhtml" dir="ltr" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;"><i>v</i></span>, they are imaged as blur spots. The depth of field is controlled by the aperture stop diameter <span class="texhtml" dir="ltr" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;"><i>d</i></span>; when the blur spot diameter is equal to the acceptable <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circle_of_confusion" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Circle of confusion">circle of confusion</a> <span class="texhtml" dir="ltr" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;"><i>c</i></span>, the near and far limits of DOF are at <span class="texhtml" dir="ltr" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;"><i>D</i><sub style="line-height: 1em;">N</sub></span> and <span class="texhtml" dir="ltr" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;"><i>D</i><sub style="line-height: 1em;">F</sub></span>. From similar triangles,</div><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><img alt="\frac {v_\mathrm N - v} {v_\mathrm N} = \frac c d" class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/d/e/a/dead6b833c1cf31b494fe7fea44c53e6.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" /></dd></dl><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">and</div><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><img alt="\frac {v- v_\mathrm F} {v_\mathrm F} = \frac c d\,." class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/8/b/0/8b0fe58c2e00c2dfc356d74efd33979f.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" /></dd></dl><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">It usually is more convenient to work with the lens <var>f</var>-number than the aperture diameter; the <var>f</var>-number <span class="texhtml" dir="ltr" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;"><i>N</i></span> is related to the lens focal length <span class="texhtml" dir="ltr" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;"><i>f</i></span>and the aperture diameter <span class="texhtml" dir="ltr" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;"><i>d</i></span> by</div><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><img alt="N = \frac f d\,;" class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/1/4/d/14d00d4f30a56bf15805627460248f04.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" /></dd></dl><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">substitution into the previous equations gives</div><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><img alt="\frac {v_\mathrm N - v} {v_\mathrm N} = \frac {v- v_\mathrm F} {v_\mathrm F} = \frac {N c} f\,." class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/1/4/7/1476774aa8760620b01bed62251dacb1.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" /></dd></dl><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Rearranging to solve for <span class="texhtml" dir="ltr" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;"><i>v</i><sub style="line-height: 1em;">N</sub></span> and <span class="texhtml" dir="ltr" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;"><i>v</i><sub style="line-height: 1em;">F</sub></span> gives</div><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><img alt="v_\mathrm N = \frac {fv} {f - Nc}" class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/f/b/c/fbca75e64649066cc865c3ea6d0eafb2.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" /></dd></dl><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">and</div><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><img alt="v_\mathrm F = \frac {fv} {f + Nc}\,." class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/9/6/7/967b74249f6ffef8bb0704ed726d7584.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" /></dd></dl><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">The image distance <span class="texhtml" dir="ltr" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;"><i>v</i></span> is related to an object distance <span class="texhtml" dir="ltr" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;"><i>s</i></span> by the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thin_lens" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Thin lens">thin lens</a> equation</div><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><img alt="\frac 1 s + \frac 1 v = \frac 1 f\,;" class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/a/0/1/a01bfc74368f37bd214319894f205023.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" /></dd></dl><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">applying this to <span class="texhtml" dir="ltr" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;"><i>v</i><sub style="line-height: 1em;">N</sub></span> and <span class="texhtml" dir="ltr" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;"><i>v</i><sub style="line-height: 1em;">F</sub></span> gives</div><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><img alt="\frac 1 D_\mathrm N + \frac 1 v_\mathrm N = \frac 1 f\," class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/9/7/3/97311e244a3b0be779e84c35933cf3a5.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" /></dd></dl><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">and</div><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><img alt="\frac 1 D_\mathrm F + \frac 1 v_\mathrm F = \frac 1 f\,;" class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/9/c/a/9ca5509c9625ca133f8b0339050a8973.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" /></dd></dl><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">solving for <span class="texhtml" dir="ltr" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;"><i>v</i></span>, <span class="texhtml" dir="ltr" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;"><i>v</i><sub style="line-height: 1em;">N</sub></span>, and <span class="texhtml" dir="ltr" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;"><i>v</i><sub style="line-height: 1em;">F</sub></span> in these three equations, substituting into the two previous equations, and rearranging gives the near and far limits of DOF:</div><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><img alt="D_{\mathrm N} = \frac {s f^2} {f^2 + N c ( s - f ) }" class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/e/1/e/e1e0bc8ef274f112e9cfc38875f960b4.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" /></dd></dl><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">and</div><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><img alt="D_{\mathrm F} = \frac {s f^2} {f^2 - N c ( s - f ) }\,." class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/7/9/1/791f4c9dd17e3dd8c26745082d4c4b11.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" /></dd></dl><h3 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; color: black; font-size: 17px; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Depth_of_field&action=edit&section=31" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Hyperfocal distance">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Hyperfocal_distance_3">Hyperfocal distance</span></h3><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Solving for the focus distance <span class="texhtml" dir="ltr" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;"><i>s</i></span> and setting the far limit of DOF <span class="texhtml" dir="ltr" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;"><i>D</i><sub style="line-height: 1em;">F</sub></span> to infinity gives</div><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><img alt="s = H = \frac {f^2} {N c} + f," class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/7/d/2/7d21f239f79ac6a4ea1c0dcf04e76da9.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" /></dd></dl><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">where <span class="texhtml" dir="ltr" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;"><i>H</i></span> is the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperfocal_distance" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Hyperfocal distance">hyperfocal distance</a>. Setting the subject distance to the hyperfocal distance and solving for the near limit of DOF gives</div><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><img alt="D_{\mathrm N} = \frac {f^2 / ( N c ) + f} {2} = \frac {H}{2}\,." class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/6/c/7/6c705bc42281c105a5846d1d8901ff06.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" /></dd></dl><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">For any practical value of <span class="texhtml" dir="ltr" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;"><i>H</i></span>, the focal length is negligible in comparison, so that</div><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><img alt="H \approx \frac {f^2} {N c}\,." class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/c/4/e/c4e9780064012b8891ebc70edc5f3fb7.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" /></dd></dl><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Substituting the approximate expression for hyperfocal distance into the formulas for the near and far limits of DOF gives</div><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><img alt="D_{\mathrm N} = \frac {H s}{H + ( s - f )}" class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/b/0/4/b04616c214bba5b0a704ed681a56e844.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" /></dd></dl><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">and</div><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><img alt="D_{\mathrm F} = \frac {H s}{H - ( s - f )}\,." class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/1/f/0/1f076f80b2b72456d86b57e39687427e.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" /></dd></dl><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Combining, the depth of field <span class="texhtml" dir="ltr" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;"><i>D</i><sub style="line-height: 1em;">F</sub> − <i>D</i><sub style="line-height: 1em;">N</sub></span> is</div><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><img alt="
\mathrm {DOF} = \frac {2 H s (s - f )}
{H^2 - ( s - f )^2} \mbox{ for } s < H \,.
" class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/2/9/b/29b18c9081aa6f4841ad036e7cd703c3.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" /></dd></dl><h4 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; color: black; font-size: 15px; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Depth_of_field&action=edit&section=32" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Hyperfocal magnification">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Hyperfocal_magnification">Hyperfocal magnification</span></h4><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Magnification <span class="texhtml" dir="ltr" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;"><i>m</i></span> can be expressed as</div><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><img alt="m = \frac {f} {\left ( s - f \right )} \,;" class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/c/6/0/c60a2e74bd04e4c1a023b7eaa9397f0a.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" /></dd></dl><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">at the hyperfocal distance, the magnification <span class="texhtml" dir="ltr" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;"><i>m</i><sub style="line-height: 1em;">h</sub></span> then is</div><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><img alt="m_\mathrm{h} = \frac {f} {\left ( H - f \right )} \,." class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/5/9/0/590c472326e983f8b276d0c6ea79c68b.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" /></dd></dl><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Substituting <img alt="f^{\,2}/Nc + f \," class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/4/c/e/4cea2c8f5d43e73c559632dd1d0a1a1a.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; vertical-align: middle;" /> for <span class="texhtml" dir="ltr" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;"><i>H</i></span> and simplifying gives</div><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><img alt="m_\mathrm{h} = \frac {Nc} {f} \,." class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/d/6/7/d672245ae39f49015ef27d6d8eb81a1e.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" /></dd></dl><h3 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; color: black; font-size: 17px; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Depth_of_field&action=edit&section=33" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: DOF in terms of magnification">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="DOF_in_terms_of_magnification">DOF in terms of magnification</span></h3><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">It is sometimes convenient to express DOF in terms of magnification <i>m</i>. Substituting</div><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><img alt="s = \frac {m + 1} {m} f" class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/7/9/9/799c47d9b0d4f1f3661c544c810ad8c8.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" /></dd></dl><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">and</div><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><img alt="s - f = \frac {f} {m}" class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/2/4/6/246c4b7f2ddbd5a8bd8c0112c1d0444c.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" /></dd></dl><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">into the formula for DOF and rearranging gives</div><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><img alt="
\mathrm {DOF} = \frac
{2 f ( m + 1 ) / m }
{ ( f m ) / ( N c ) - ( N c ) / ( f m ) }\,,
" class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/f/a/c/fac33c989f5d82a3525a415c2b69b0bc.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" /></dd></dl><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">after <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_of_field#CITEREFLarmore1965" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">Larmore (1965</a>, 163).</div><h3 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; color: black; font-size: 17px; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Depth_of_field&action=edit&section=34" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: DOF vs. focal length">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="DOF_vs._focal_length">DOF vs. focal length</span></h3><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Multiplying the numerator and denominator of the exact formula above by</div><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><img alt="\frac {N c m} {f}" class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/f/c/f/fcfa68a13675456a916b4e6a311210a7.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" /></dd></dl><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">gives</div><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><img alt="\mathrm {DOF} = \frac
{2 N c \left ( m + 1 \right )}
{m^2 - \left ( \frac {N c} {f} \right )^2} \,.
" class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/3/6/3/363058a841733a87056efe3ca9efdc68.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" /></dd></dl><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">If the <i>f</i>-number and circle of confusion are constant, decreasing the focal length <span class="texhtml" dir="ltr" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;"><i>f</i></span> increases the second term in the denominator, decreasing the denominator and increasing the value of the right-hand side, so that a shorter focal length gives greater DOF.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">The term in parentheses in the denominator is the hyperfocal magnification <span class="texhtml" dir="ltr" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;"><i>m</i><sub style="line-height: 1em;">h</sub></span>, so that</div><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><img alt="\mathrm {DOF} = \frac
{2 N c \left ( m + 1 \right )}
{m^2 - m^2_{\mathrm{h}} } \,.
" class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/0/3/5/035a922d54434311989b59d450b14b09.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" /></dd></dl><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">A subject distance is decreased, the subject magnification increases, and eventually becomes large in comparison with the hyperfocal magnification. Thus the effect of focal length is greatest near the hyperfocal distance, and decreases as subject distance is decreased. However, the near/far perspective will differ for different focal lengths, so the difference in DOF may not be readily apparent.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">When <img alt="s \ll H" class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/c/d/2/cd245d21826de073b51e762c352705d6.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; vertical-align: middle;" />, <img alt="m^2_\mathrm{h} \ll m^2" class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/5/b/f/5bf4123ef5b30da44c88564b043216a6.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; vertical-align: middle;" />, and</div><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><img alt="\mathrm {DOF} \approx 2 N c \, \frac {m + 1} {m^2} \,," class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/5/b/9/5b93709b3b0d4740d5e405a255832834.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" /></dd></dl><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">so that for a given magnification, DOF is essentially independent of focal length. Stated otherwise, for the same subject magnification and the same <i>f</i>-number, all focal lengths for a given <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_format" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Film format">image format</a> give approximately the same DOF. This statement is true only when the subject distance is small in comparison with the hyperfocal distance, however.</div><h3 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; color: black; font-size: 17px; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Depth_of_field&action=edit&section=35" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Moderate-to-large distances">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Moderate-to-large_distances_2">Moderate-to-large distances</span></h3><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">When the subject distance is large in comparison with the lens <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Focal_length" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Focal length">focal length</a>,</div><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><img alt="D_{\mathrm N} \approx \frac {H s} {H + s}" class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/a/1/0/a1015da206f3ca83e0b4013dcf1fb1d1.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" /></dd></dl><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">and</div><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><img alt="D_{\mathrm F} \approx \frac {H s} {H - s} \mbox{ for } s < H\,," class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/d/e/8/de85297974654aeab6c37e51235a7361.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" /></dd></dl><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">so that</div><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><img alt="
\mathrm {DOF} \approx \frac {2 H s^2}
{H^2 - s^2} \mbox{ for } s < H \,.
" class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/3/4/e/34ea225651d5a96f08f5c1a6d19cd1a1.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" /></dd></dl><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">For <img alt="s \ge H" class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/8/f/0/8f09d1c59f537e790e5309b83325925a.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; vertical-align: middle;" />, the far limit of DOF is at infinity and the DOF is infinite; of course, only objects at or beyond the near limit of DOF will be recorded with acceptable sharpness.</div><h3 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; color: black; font-size: 17px; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Depth_of_field&action=edit&section=36" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Close-up">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Close-up_2">Close-up</span></h3><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">When the subject distance <span class="texhtml" dir="ltr" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;"><i>s</i></span> approaches the lens focal length, the focal length no longer is negligible, and the approximate formulas above cannot be used without introducing significant error. At close distances, the hyperfocal distance has little applicability, and it usually is more convenient to express DOF in terms of magnification. The distance is small in comparison with the hyperfocal distance, so the simplified formula</div><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><img alt="\mathrm {DOF} \approx 2 N c \, \frac {m + 1} {m^2} \,," class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/5/b/9/5b93709b3b0d4740d5e405a255832834.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" /></dd></dl><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">can be used with good accuracy. For a given magnification, DOF is independent of focal length.</div><h3 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; color: black; font-size: 17px; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Depth_of_field&action=edit&section=37" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Near:far DOF ratio">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Near:far_DOF_ratio">Near:far DOF ratio</span></h3><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">From the “exact” equations for near and far limits of DOF, the DOF in front of the subject is</div><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><img alt="s - D_{\mathrm N} = \frac {Ncs(s - f)} {f^2 + Nc(s - f)}\,," class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/a/d/9/ad943601fb5f733333aa79e0a2b0d839.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" /></dd></dl><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">and the DOF beyond the subject is</div><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><img alt="D_{\mathrm F} - s = \frac {Ncs(s - f)} {f^2 - Nc(s - f)}\,." class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/4/c/9/4c9e55c0296397a6f07f91f1a8bdaa9a.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" /></dd></dl><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">The near:far DOF ratio is</div><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><img alt="\frac {s - D_{\mathrm N}} {D_{\mathrm F} - s}
= \frac {f^2 - Nc(s - f)} {f^2 + Nc(s - f)}\,." class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/d/5/2/d528a07182416ebe9926fedccba1720a.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" /></dd></dl><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">This ratio is always less than unity; at moderate-to-large subject distances, <img alt="f \ll s" class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/9/8/3/98395838c44726e9b3bb05a80f24dd84.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; vertical-align: middle;" />, and</div><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><img alt="\frac {s - D_{\mathrm N}} {D_{\mathrm F} - s}
\approx \frac {f^2 - Ncs} {f^2 + Ncs} = \frac {H - s} {H + s}\,." class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/e/7/a/e7a80782c2708a162adc122964e5c9f5.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" /></dd></dl><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">When the subject is at the hyperfocal distance or beyond, the far DOF is infinite, and the near:far ratio is zero. It’s commonly stated that approximately 1/3 of the DOF is in front of the subject and approximately 2/3 is beyond; however, this is true only when <img alt="s \approx H/3" class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/a/e/c/aec9751bb7bca4369053f55ebd1ee2b3.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; vertical-align: middle;" />.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">At closer subject distances, it’s often more convenient to express the DOF ratio in terms of the magnification</div><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><img alt="m = \frac f {s - f}\,;" class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/d/a/6/da61347e4ed36704becbb10c146b1dbe.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" /></dd></dl><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">substitution into the “exact” equation for DOF ratio gives</div><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><img alt="\frac {s - D_{\mathrm N}} {D_{\mathrm F} - s}
= \frac {m - Nc/f} {m + Nc/f}\,." class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/0/c/3/0c3256af953c8f4e2370b500494ebd5c.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" /></dd></dl><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">As magnification increases, the near:far ratio approaches a limiting value of unity.</div><h3 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; color: black; font-size: 17px; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Depth_of_field&action=edit&section=38" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: DOF vs. format size">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="DOF_vs._format_size_2">DOF vs. format size</span></h3><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">When the subject distance is much less than hyperfocal, the total DOF is given to good approximation by</div><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><img alt="\mathrm{DOF} \approx 2Nc \, \frac {m + 1} {m^2} \,." class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/5/9/4/59451bbaccc098369235af915918e34d.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" /></dd></dl><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">When additionally the magnification is small compared to unity, the value of <span class="texhtml" dir="ltr" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;"><i>m</i></span> in the numerator can be neglected, and the formula further simplifies to</div><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><img alt="\mathrm{DOF} \approx \frac {2Nc} {m^2} \,." class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/9/8/1/981188f587bf0c524cbe11a665c9f7fa.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" /></dd></dl><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">The DOF ratio for two different formats is then</div><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><img alt=" \frac {\mathrm{DOF}_2} {\mathrm{DOF}_1} \approx \frac {N_2 \, c_2} {N_1 \, c_1} \left ( \frac {m_1} {m_2} \right )^2 \,." class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/c/1/8/c185e66ed4ab18a082fcd323566352da.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" /></dd></dl><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Essentially the same approach is described in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_of_field#CITEREFStroebel1976" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">Stroebel (1976</a>, 136–39).</div><h4 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; color: black; font-size: 15px; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Depth_of_field&action=edit&section=39" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: “Same picture” for both formats">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id=".E2.80.9CSame_picture.E2.80.9D_for_both_formats">“Same picture” for both formats</span></h4><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">The results of the comparison depend on what is assumed. One approach is to assume that essentially the same picture is taken with each format and enlarged to produce the same size final image, so the subject distance remains the same, the focal length is adjusted to maintain the same angle of view, and to a first approximation, magnification is in direct proportion to some characteristic dimension of each format. If both pictures are enlarged to give the same size final images with the same sharpness criteria, the circle of confusion is also in direct proportion to the format size. Thus if <span class="texhtml" dir="ltr" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;"><i>l</i></span> is the characteristic dimension of the format,</div><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><img alt="\frac {m_2} {m_1} = \frac {c_2} {c_1} = \frac {l_2} {l_1}." class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/3/8/f/38f2722eab5603ca9a13dc722bc56f36.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" /></dd></dl><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">With the same <i>f</i>-number, the DOF ratio is then</div><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><img alt=" \frac {\mathrm{DOF}_2} {\mathrm{DOF}_1} \approx \frac {c_2} {c_1} \left ( \frac {m_1} {m_2} \right )^2 = \frac {l_2} {l_1} \left ( \frac {l_1} {l_2} \right )^2 = \frac {l_1} {l_2} \,," class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/3/1/b/31bfceeaa855740e06c8d3858c3a1401.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" /></dd></dl><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">so the DOF ratio is in inverse proportion to the format size. This ratio is approximate, and breaks down in the macro range of the larger format (the value of <span class="texhtml" dir="ltr" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;"><i>m</i></span> in the numerator is no longer negligible) or as distance approaches the hyperfocal distance for the smaller format (the DOF of the smaller format approaches infinity).</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">If the formats have approximately the same aspect ratios, the characteristic dimensions can be the format diagonals; if the aspect ratios differ considerably (e.g., 4×5 vs. 6×17), the dimensions must be chosen more carefully, and the DOF comparison may not even be meaningful.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">If the DOF is to be the same for both formats the required <i>f</i>-number is in direct proportion to the format size:</div><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><img alt=" \frac {N_2} {N_1} \approx \frac {c_1} {c_2} \left ( \frac {m_2} {m_1} \right )^2 = \frac {l_2} {l_1} \,." class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/c/6/4/c64392c8c4bc4e850a38ae5840b6707d.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" /></dd></dl><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Adjusting the <i>f</i>-number in proportion to format size is equivalent to using the same absolute aperture diameter for both formats, discussed in detail below in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_of_field#Use_of_absolute_aperture_diameter" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">Use of absolute aperture diameter</a>.</div><h4 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; color: black; font-size: 15px; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Depth_of_field&action=edit&section=40" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Same focal length for both formats">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Same_focal_length_for_both_formats">Same focal length for both formats</span></h4><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">If the same lens focal length is used in both formats, magnifications can be maintained in the ratio of the format sizes by adjusting subject distances; the DOF ratio is the same as that given above, but the images differ because of the different perspectives and angles of view.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">If the same DOF is required for each format, an analysis similar to that above shows that the required <i>f</i>-number is in direct proportion to the format size.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Another approach is to use the same focal length with both formats at the same subject distance, so the magnification is the same, and with the same <i>f</i>-number,</div><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><img alt=" \frac {\mathrm{DOF}_2} {\mathrm{DOF}_1} \approx \frac {c_2} {c_1} = \frac {l_2} {l_1} \,," class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/8/4/0/8404a62ff8f11f819456e4d6183abbf4.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" /></dd></dl><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">so the DOF ratio is in <i>direct</i> proportion to the format size. The perspective is the same for both formats, but because of the different angles of view, the pictures are not the same.</div><h4 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; color: black; font-size: 15px; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Depth_of_field&action=edit&section=41" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Cropping">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Cropping">Cropping</span></h4><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Cropping an image and enlarging to the same size final image as an uncropped image taken under the same conditions is equivalent to using a smaller format; the cropped image requires greater enlargement and consequently has a smaller circle of confusion. The cropped image has less DOF than the uncropped image.</div><h4 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; color: black; font-size: 15px; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Depth_of_field&action=edit&section=42" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Use of absolute aperture diameter">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Use_of_absolute_aperture_diameter">Use of absolute aperture diameter</span></h4><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">The aperture diameter is normally given in terms of the <i>f</i>-number because all lenses set to the same <i>f</i>-number give approximately the same image <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illuminance" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Illuminance">illuminance</a> (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_of_field#CITEREFRay2002" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">Ray 2002</a>, 130), simplifying exposure settings. In deriving the basic DOF equations, the substitution of <span class="texhtml" dir="ltr" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;"><i>f</i> / <i>N</i></span> for the absolute aperture diameter <span class="texhtml" dir="ltr" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;"><i>d</i></span> can be omitted, giving the DOF in terms of the absolute aperture diameter:</div><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><img alt="\mathrm{DOF} = \frac {2s} { ( dm ) / c - c / ( dm) } \,," class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/0/a/b/0ab363ec02880118666d35f6db804d52.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" /></dd></dl><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">after <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_of_field#CITEREFLarmore1965" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">Larmore (1965</a>, 163). When the subject distance <span class="texhtml" dir="ltr" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;"><i>s</i></span> is small in comparison with the hyperfocal distance, the second term in the denominator can be neglected, leading to</div><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><img alt="\mathrm{DOF} \approx \frac {2sc} { dm } \,." class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/c/0/9/c097666f71e8d9c936a6f3cc41242b2f.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" /></dd></dl><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">With the same subject distance and angle of view for both formats, <span class="texhtml" dir="ltr" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;"><i>s</i><sub style="line-height: 1em;">2</sub> = <i>s</i><sub style="line-height: 1em;">1</sub></span>, and</div><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><img alt=" \frac {\mathrm{DOF}_2} {\mathrm{DOF}_1} \approx \frac {c_2} {c_1} \frac {d_1} {d_2} \frac {m_1} {m_2}
= \frac {l_2} {l_1} \frac {d_1} {d_2} \frac {l_1} {l_2} = \frac {d_1} {d_2} \,," class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/a/2/f/a2f54ca1d6c7025e6681df4cef862cce.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" /></dd></dl><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">so the DOFs are in inverse proportion to the absolute aperture diameters. When the diameters are the same, the two formats have the same DOF. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_of_field#CITEREFvon_Rohr1906" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">Von Rohr (1906)</a> made this same observation, saying “At this point it will be sufficient to note that all these formulae involve quantities relating exclusively to the entrance-pupil and its position with respect to the object-point, whereas the focal length of the transforming system does not enter into them.” Lyon’s <a class="external text" href="http://www.dicklyon.com/tech/Photography/DepthOfField-Lyon.pdf" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: url(http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/23/Icons-mini-file_acrobat.gif); background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #3366bb; padding-right: 18px; text-decoration: none;">Depth of Field Outside the Box</a> describes an approach very similar to that of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moritz_von_Rohr" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Moritz von Rohr">von Rohr</a>.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Using the same absolute aperture diameter for both formats with the “same picture” criterion is equivalent to adjusting the <i>f</i>-number in proportion to the format sizes, discussed above under <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_of_field#.E2.80.9CSame_picture.E2.80.9D_for_both_formats_2" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">“Same picture” for both formats</a></div><h3 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; color: black; font-size: 17px; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Depth_of_field&action=edit&section=43" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Focus and f-number from DOF limits">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Focus_and_f-number_from_DOF_limits_2">Focus and <var>f</var>-number from DOF limits</span></h3><h4 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; color: black; font-size: 15px; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Depth_of_field&action=edit&section=44" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Object-side relationships">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Object-side_relationships">Object-side relationships</span></h4><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">The equations for the DOF limits can be combined to eliminate <span class="texhtml" dir="ltr" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;"><i>N</i><i>c</i></span> and solve for the subject distance. For given near and far DOF limits <span class="texhtml" dir="ltr" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;"><i>D</i><sub style="line-height: 1em;">N</sub></span>and <span class="texhtml" dir="ltr" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;"><i>D</i><sub style="line-height: 1em;">F</sub></span>, the subject distance is</div><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><img alt="s = \frac {2 D_{\mathrm N} D_{\mathrm F} }
{D_{\mathrm N} + D_{\mathrm F} } \,,
" class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/3/e/1/3e1a29e0e871eaaa2b2c29ee6f412075.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" /></dd></dl><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harmonic_mean" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Harmonic mean">harmonic mean</a> of the near and far distances. The equations for DOF limits also can be combined to eliminate <span class="texhtml" dir="ltr" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;"><i>s</i></span> and solve for the required<var>f</var>-number, giving</div><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><img alt="N = \frac {f^2} {c}
\frac {D_{\mathrm F} - D_{\mathrm N} }
{D_{\mathrm F} ( D_{\mathrm N} - f ) + D_{\mathrm N} ( D_{\mathrm F} - f ) } \,.
" class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/8/9/b/89b95361ecb775f28218c1894e2b089c.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" /></dd></dl><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">When the subject distance is large in comparison with the lens focal length, this simplifies to</div><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><img alt="N \approx \frac {f^2} {c}
\frac {D_{\mathrm F} - D_{\mathrm N} } {2 D_{\mathrm N} D_{\mathrm F} } \,.
" class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/5/5/c/55cb277153a25ee3bb7ab017af8d783e.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" /></dd></dl><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">When the far limit of DOF is at infinity, the equations for <span class="texhtml" dir="ltr" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;"><i>s</i></span> and <span class="texhtml" dir="ltr" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;"><i>N</i></span> give indeterminate results. But if all terms in the numerator and denominator on the right-hand side of the equation for <span class="texhtml" dir="ltr" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;"><i>s</i></span> are divided by <span class="texhtml" dir="ltr" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;"><i>D</i><sub style="line-height: 1em;">F</sub></span>, it is seen that when <span class="texhtml" dir="ltr" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;"><i>D</i><sub style="line-height: 1em;">F</sub></span> is at infinity,</div><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><img alt="s = 2 D_\mathrm N \,." class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/1/f/4/1f40571a025254d21261ff61ca6b5eb0.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" /></dd></dl><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Similarly, if all terms in the numerator and denominator on the right-hand side of the equation for <span class="texhtml" dir="ltr" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;"><i>N</i></span> are divided by <span class="texhtml" dir="ltr" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;"><i>D</i><sub style="line-height: 1em;">F</sub></span>, it is seen that when <span class="texhtml" dir="ltr" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;"><i>D</i><sub style="line-height: 1em;">F</sub></span>is at infinity,</div><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><img alt="N = \frac {f^2} c \frac 1 { 2 D_\mathrm N - f }
\approx \frac {f^2} c \frac 1 { 2 D_\mathrm N }\,." class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/1/9/8/198d2cb79f5b5a0cb77edf74eb31f0f5.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" /></dd></dl><h4 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; color: black; font-size: 15px; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Depth_of_field&action=edit&section=45" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Image-side relationships">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Image-side_relationships">Image-side relationships</span></h4><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Most discussions of DOF concentrate on the object side of the lens, but the formulas are simpler and the measurements usually easier to make on the image side. If the basic image-side equations</div><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><img alt="\frac {v_\mathrm N - v} {v_\mathrm N} = \frac {Nc} f" class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/c/7/8/c78a8bcd392788597159d42cc97226c1.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" /></dd></dl><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">and</div><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><img alt="\frac {v- v_\mathrm F} {v_\mathrm F} = \frac {Nc} f" class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/8/4/7/8479977426dc3f4788c440d639d740b4.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" /></dd></dl><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">are combined and solved for the image distance <span class="texhtml" dir="ltr" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;"><i>v</i></span>, the result is</div><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><img alt="v = \frac {2 v_{\mathrm N} v_{\mathrm F} }
{v_{\mathrm N} + v_{\mathrm F} } \,,
" class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/2/8/5/2851b0be5b904ef931b523c4634f7351.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" /></dd></dl><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">the harmonic mean of the near and far image distances. The basic image-side equations can also be combined and solved for <span class="texhtml" dir="ltr" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;"><i>N</i></span>, giving</div><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><img alt="N = \frac {f} {c}
\frac { v_{\mathrm N} - v_{\mathrm F} }
{v_{\mathrm N} + v_{\mathrm F} }
\,." class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/1/0/5/105062bd537dfebc3894300acb87fcbb.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" /></dd></dl><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">The image distances are measured from the camera's image plane to the lens's image nodal plane, which is not always easy to locate. The harmonic mean is always less than the arithmentic mean, but when the difference between the near and far image distances is reasonably small, the two means are close to equal, and focus can be set with sufficient accuracy using</div><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><img alt="v \approx \frac { v_{\mathrm N} + v_{\mathrm F} } {2}
= v_{\mathrm F} + \frac { v_{\mathrm N} - v_{\mathrm F} } {2} \,.
" class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/8/c/6/8c684ba7357f3c78427d461d77d6c12c.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" /></dd></dl><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">This formula requires only the <i>difference</i> <img alt="v_{\mathrm N} \, - \, v_{\mathrm F}" class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/3/a/9/3a92281f9be67405ddbc177b432cae6f.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; vertical-align: middle;" /> between the near and far image distances. View camera users often refer to this difference as the <i>focus spread</i>; it usually is measured on the bed or focusing rail. Focus is simply set to halfway between the near and far image distances.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Substituting <img alt="v_\mathrm N + v_\mathrm F = 2v\,\!" class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/d/5/e/d5e7457fc2c5badb944c9f87906bcd8d.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; vertical-align: middle;" /> into the equation for <span class="texhtml" dir="ltr" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;"><i>N</i></span> and rearranging gives</div><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><img alt="N \approx \frac f v \frac { v_{\mathrm N} - v_{\mathrm F} } { 2 c } \,." class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/c/2/d/c2dd788dbf9f4f6ac613db985f37a709.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" /></dd></dl><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">One variant of the thin-lens equation is <img alt="v = \left ( m + 1 \right ) f" class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/d/5/9/d59940fc4831be6d8d6bd5c72df956e4.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; vertical-align: middle;" />, where <span class="texhtml" dir="ltr" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;"><i>m</i></span> is the magnification; substituting this into the equation for <span class="texhtml" dir="ltr" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;"><i>N</i></span> gives</div><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><img alt="N \approx \frac {1} { 1 + m } \frac { v_{\mathrm N} - v_{\mathrm F} } { 2 c } \,.
" class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/c/6/3/c63fb5adefcc5ee2f3848ef4a3ac5a0b.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" /></dd></dl><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">At moderate-to-large subject distances, <span class="texhtml" dir="ltr" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;"><i>m</i></span> is small compared to unity, and the <var>f</var>-number can often be determined with sufficient accuracy using</div><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><img alt="N \approx \frac { v_{\mathrm N} - v_{\mathrm F} } { 2 c }\,." class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/3/a/c/3acaf4471516e47bce6bbd143b981541.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" /></dd></dl><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">For close-up photography, the magnification cannot be ignored, and the <var>f</var>-number should be determined using the first approximate formula.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">As with the approximate formula for <span class="texhtml" dir="ltr" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;"><i>v</i></span>, the approximate formulas for <span class="texhtml" dir="ltr" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;"><i>N</i></span> require only the focus spread <img alt="v_{\mathrm N} \, - \, v_{\mathrm F}" class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/3/a/9/3a92281f9be67405ddbc177b432cae6f.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; vertical-align: middle;" /> rather than the absolute image distances.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">When the far limit of DOF is at infinity, <img alt="v_\mathrm F = f\,\!" class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/2/6/7/26753600636344cd3a3c08c17c4b7d24.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; vertical-align: middle;" />.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">On manual-focus small- and medium-format lenses, the focus and <var>f</var>-number usually are determined using the lens DOF scales, which often are based on the approximate equations above.</div><div class="thumb tright" style="background-color: transparent; clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1.3em; margin-left: 1.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><div class="thumbinner" style="background-color: #f9f9f9; border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; font-size: 12px; min-width: 100px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-top: 3px !important; text-align: center; width: 442px;"><a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:DefocusBlur.png" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="" class="thumbimage" height="113" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e3/DefocusBlur.png/440px-DefocusBlur.png" style="background-color: white; border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-color: initial; border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" width="440" /></a><div class="thumbcaption" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; font-size: 11px; line-height: 1.4em; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-top: 3px !important; text-align: left;"><div class="magnify" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; float: right;"><a class="internal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:DefocusBlur.png" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; color: #0645ad; display: block; text-decoration: none;" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="http://bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.18/common/images/magnify-clip.png" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; border-width: initial; display: block; vertical-align: middle;" width="15" /></a></div>Defocus blur for background object at B.</div></div></div><h3 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; color: black; font-size: 17px; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Depth_of_field&action=edit&section=46" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Foreground and background blur">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Foreground_and_background_blur_2">Foreground and background blur</span></h3><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">If the equation for the far limit of DOF is solved for <span class="texhtml" dir="ltr" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;"><i>c</i></span>, and the far distance replaced by an arbitrary distance <span class="texhtml" dir="ltr" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;"><i>D</i></span>, the blur disk diameter <span class="texhtml" dir="ltr" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;"><i>b</i></span> at that distance is</div><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><img alt="b = \frac {fm_\mathrm s} {N} \frac { D - s } { D }\,." class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/b/0/9/b09ae41195dd8f7c6a3ca8da92bc18d0.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" /></dd></dl><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">When the background is at the far limit of DOF, the blur disk diameter is equal to the circle of confusion <span class="texhtml" dir="ltr" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;"><i>c</i></span>, and the blur is just imperceptible. The diameter of the background blur disk increases with the distance to the background. A similar relationship holds for the foreground; the general expression for a defocused object at distance <span class="texhtml" dir="ltr" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;"><i>D</i></span> is</div><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><img alt="b = \frac {fm_\mathrm s} {N} \frac { \left| D - s \right | } { D }\,." class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/0/d/7/0d79392ebbb56c0808b760c297c8927b.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" /></dd></dl><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">For a given scene, the distance between the subject and a foreground or background object is usually fixed; let that distance be represented by</div><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><img alt="x_\mathrm d = \left | D - s \right | ;" class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/2/b/f/2bf8de0cc5782b5314a03ad2c59cf4c8.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" /></dd></dl><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">then</div><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><img alt="b = \frac {fm_\mathrm s} {N} \frac { x_\mathrm d } { D }\,." class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/c/d/b/cdb9d28d23c35480e008eb10a907fe4a.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" /></dd></dl><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">or, in terms of subject distance,</div><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><img alt="b = \frac {fm_\mathrm s} {N} \frac { x_\mathrm d } { s \pm x_\mathrm d } ," class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/0/c/4/0c416fe6f8bf4d051d8fd05ddcf50aad.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" /></dd></dl><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">with the minus sign used for foreground objects and the plus sign used for background objects. For a relatively distant background object,</div><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><img alt="b \approx \frac {fm_\mathrm s} N \,." class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/6/f/6/6f6ecb1fbaca43b52adf6ae816bdc5a9.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" /></dd></dl><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">In terms of subject magnification, the subject distance is</div><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><img alt="s = \frac { m_\mathrm s + 1 } { m_\mathrm s } f ," class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/1/a/a/1aafcbfe49b64bf401d7618da17acf29.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" /></dd></dl><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">so that, for a given <var>f</var>-number and subject magnification,</div><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><img alt="b = \frac {fm_\mathrm s} {N} \frac { x_\mathrm d } { \frac { m_\mathrm s + 1} {m_\mathrm s} f \pm x_\mathrm d }
= \frac {fm_\mathrm s ^2} {N} \frac { x_\mathrm d } { \left ( m_\mathrm s + 1 \right ) f \pm m_\mathrm s x_\mathrm d } \,.
" class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/2/d/c/2dc1a33a056aae4987d74c0c423ec8f5.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" /></dd></dl><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Differentiating <span class="texhtml" dir="ltr" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;"><i>b</i></span> with respect to <span class="texhtml" dir="ltr" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;"><i>f</i></span> gives</div><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><img alt="\frac {\mathrm d b} {\mathrm d f}
= \frac {\pm m_\mathrm s ^3 x_\mathrm d ^2}
{N \left [ \left ( m_\mathrm s + 1 \right ) f \pm m_\mathrm s x_\mathrm d \right ]^2 }\,.
" class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/f/8/e/f8e0c8d7b7eb935b817e88d5b438aaab.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" /></dd></dl><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">With the plus sign, the derivative is everywhere positive, so that for a background object, the blur disk size increases with focal length. With the minus sign, the derivative is everywhere negative, so that for a foreground object, the blur disk size decreases with focal length.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">The magnification of the defocused object also varies with focal length; the magnification of the defocused object is</div><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><img alt="m_\mathrm d = \frac {v_\mathrm s} {D} = \frac { \left ( m_\mathrm s + 1 \right ) f } { D }," class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/4/a/6/4a67cfdf16e20cf7f9f0d53c0ebbd774.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" /></dd></dl><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">where <span class="texhtml" dir="ltr" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;"><i>v</i><sub style="line-height: 1em;">s</sub></span> is the image distance of the subject. For a defocused object with some characteristic dimension <span class="texhtml" dir="ltr" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;"><i>y</i></span>, the imaged size of that object is</div><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><img alt="m_\mathrm d y = \frac { \left ( m_\mathrm s + 1 \right ) f y } { D }\,." class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/6/1/2/612c92d3f1ed7f40bc104e7eebdf632a.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" /></dd></dl><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">The ratio of the blur disk size to the imaged size of that object then is</div><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><img alt=" \frac b { m_\mathrm d y } = \frac {m_\mathrm s} { m_\mathrm s + 1 } \frac {x_\mathrm d } { Ny }," class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/2/2/f/22f101487ff5588eba3363813f2f76fa.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" /></dd></dl><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">so for a given defocused object, the ratio of the blur disk diameter to object size is independent of focal length, and depends only on the object size and its distance from the subject.</div><h3 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; color: black; font-size: 17px; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Depth_of_field&action=edit&section=47" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Asymmetrical lenses">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Asymmetrical_lenses">Asymmetrical lenses</span></h3><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">The discussion thus far has assumed a symmetrical lens for which the entrance and exit <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pupil" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Pupil">pupils</a> coincide with the object and image <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nodal_planes" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Nodal planes">nodal planes</a>, and for which the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pupil_magnification" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Pupil magnification">pupil magnification</a> is unity. Although this assumption usually is reasonable for large-format lenses, it often is invalid for medium- and small-format lenses.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">For an asymmetrical lens, the DOF ahead of the subject distance and the DOF beyond the subject distance are given by<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-10" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_of_field#cite_note-10" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>11<span>]</span></a></sup></div><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><img alt="\mathrm {DOF_N} = \frac
{N c (1 + m/P)}
{m^2 [ 1 + (N c ) / ( f m ) ] }
" class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/b/4/c/b4c47bd65fd60ed566dbe925292a1ed9.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" /></dd></dl><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">and</div><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><img alt="\mathrm {DOF_F} = \frac
{N c (1 + m/P)}
{m^2 [ 1 - (N c )/ ( f m ) ] }\,,
" class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/2/5/6/25676b59aafcaf8232f614ed812cc2a4.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" /></dd></dl><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">where <span class="texhtml" dir="ltr" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;"><i>P</i></span> is the pupil magnification.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Combining gives the total DOF:</div><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><img alt="\mathrm {DOF} = \frac {2 f ( 1/m + 1/P ) }
{ ( f m ) / ( N c ) - ( N c ) / ( f m ) }\,.
" class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/b/d/a/bdab3707e8075c091e301c5a6859b15f.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" /></dd></dl><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">When <img alt="s \ll H" class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/c/d/2/cd245d21826de073b51e762c352705d6.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; vertical-align: middle;" />, the second term in the denominator becomes small in comparison with the first, and (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_of_field#CITEREFShipman1977" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">Shipman 1977</a>, 147)</div><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><img alt="\mathrm {DOF} \approx \frac {2 N c (1 + m/P)}{m^2}\,." class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/5/5/5/555c5f1ed2897808a97fc0bfe31fae1e.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" /></dd></dl><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">When the pupil magnification is unity, the equations for asymmetrical lenses reduce to those given earlier for symmetrical lenses.</div><h3 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; color: black; font-size: 17px; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Depth_of_field&action=edit&section=48" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Effect of lens asymmetry">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Effect_of_lens_asymmetry">Effect of lens asymmetry</span></h3><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Except for close-up and macro photography, the effect of lens asymmetry is minimal. A slight rearrangement of the last equation gives</div><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><img alt="\mathrm {DOF} \approx \frac {2 N c} {m}
\left ( \frac 1 m + \frac 1 P \right )\,.
" class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/9/d/c/9dc8f90dc2cbb296927dc969e7f0abd1.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" /></dd></dl><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">As magnification decreases, the <span class="texhtml" dir="ltr" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;">1 / <i>P</i></span> term becomes smaller in comparison with the <span class="texhtml" dir="ltr" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;">1 / <i>m</i></span> term, and eventually the effect of pupil magnification becomes negligible.</div>John Michael Acehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16447213303343013873noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1050591295065099165.post-24001214613792693302011-10-28T20:19:00.001-07:002011-10-28T20:19:15.188-07:00Color Temperature<span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px;"></span><br />
<div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;"><b>Color temperature</b> is a characteristic of <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visible_light" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Visible light">visible light</a> that has important applications in lighting, photography, videography, publishing, manufacturing, astrophysics, and other fields. The color temperature of a light source is the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temperature" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Temperature">temperature</a> of an ideal<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_body" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Black body">black-body radiator</a> that radiates light of comparable <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hue" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Hue">hue</a> to that of the light source. Color temperature is conventionally stated in the unit of absolute temperature, the<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelvin" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Kelvin">kelvin</a>, having the unit symbol K.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Color temperatures over <span style="white-space: nowrap;">5,000<span style="margin-left: 0.25em;">K</span></span> are called <i>cool colors</i> (blueish white), while lower color temperatures (2,700–3,000 K) are called <i>warm colors</i> (yellowish white through red).<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-0" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_temperature#cite_note-0" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>1<span>]</span></a></sup></div><table class="toc" id="toc" style="background-color: #f9f9f9; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; font-size: 12px; padding-bottom: 5px; padding-left: 5px; padding-right: 5px; padding-top: 5px;"><tbody>
<tr><td><div id="toctitle" style="direction: ltr; text-align: center;"><h2 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; border-width: initial; color: black; display: inline; font-size: 12px; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0.6em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; width: auto;">Contents</h2> <span class="toctoggle" style="font-size: 11px;"> [<a class="internal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_temperature#" id="togglelink" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">hide</a>] </span></div><ul style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-image: none; list-style-type: none; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.3em; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left;"><li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_temperature#Categorizing_different_lighting" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Categorizing different lighting</span></a><ul style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-image: none; list-style-type: none; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 2em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left;"><li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-2" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_temperature#The_Sun" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">1.1</span> <span class="toctext">The Sun</span></a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-3" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_temperature#Color_temperature_applications" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Color temperature applications</span></a><ul style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-image: none; list-style-type: none; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 2em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left;"><li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_temperature#Lighting" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Lighting</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-5" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_temperature#Aquaculture" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">2.2</span> <span class="toctext">Aquaculture</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_temperature#Digital_photography" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">2.3</span> <span class="toctext">Digital photography</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-7" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_temperature#Photographic_film" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">2.4</span> <span class="toctext">Photographic film</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-8" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_temperature#Desktop_publishing" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">2.5</span> <span class="toctext">Desktop publishing</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-9" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_temperature#TV.2C_video.2C_and_digital_still_cameras" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">2.6</span> <span class="toctext">TV, video, and digital still cameras</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-10" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_temperature#Artistic_application_via_control_of_color_temperature" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">2.7</span> <span class="toctext">Artistic application via control of color temperature</span></a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-11" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_temperature#Correlated_color_temperature" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Correlated color temperature</span></a><ul style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-image: none; list-style-type: none; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 2em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left;"><li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-12" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_temperature#Motivation" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">3.1</span> <span class="toctext">Motivation</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-13" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_temperature#Background" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">3.2</span> <span class="toctext">Background</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-14" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_temperature#Calculation" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">3.3</span> <span class="toctext">Calculation</span></a><ul style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-image: none; list-style-type: none; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 2em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left;"><li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-15" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_temperature#Robertson.27s_method" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">3.3.1</span> <span class="toctext">Robertson's method</span></a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-16" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_temperature#Precautions" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">3.4</span> <span class="toctext">Precautions</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-17" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_temperature#Approximation" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">3.5</span> <span class="toctext">Approximation</span></a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-18" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_temperature#Color_rendering_index" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Color rendering index</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-19" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_temperature#Spectral_power_distribution" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">Spectral power distribution</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-20" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_temperature#See_also" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-21" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_temperature#References" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-22" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_temperature#Further_reading" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">8</span> <span class="toctext">Further reading</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-23" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_temperature#External_links" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">9</span> <span class="toctext">External links</span></a></li>
</ul></td></tr>
</tbody></table><h2 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; color: black; font-size: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.6em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Color_temperature&action=edit&section=1" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Categorizing different lighting">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Categorizing_different_lighting">Categorizing different lighting</span></h2><table align="right" class="wikitable" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #f9f9f9; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-collapse: collapse; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; color: black; font-size: 13px; margin-bottom: 15px; margin-left: 15px; margin-right: 15px; margin-top: 15px;"><tbody>
<tr><th style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;">Temperature</th><th style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;">Source</th></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">1,700 K</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">Match flame</td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">1,850 K</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">Candle flame, sunset/sunrise</td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">2,700–3,300 K</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">Incandescent light bulb</td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">3,200 K</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">Studio lamps, photofloods, etc.</td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">3,350 K</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">Studio "CP" light</td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">4,100 K</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">Moonlight<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-1" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_temperature#cite_note-1" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>2<span>]</span></a></sup>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xenon_arc_lamp" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Xenon arc lamp">xenon arc lamp</a></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">5,000 K</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">Horizon daylight</td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">5,500–6,000 K</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">Vertical daylight, electronic flash</td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">6,500 K</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">Daylight, overcast</td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">9,300 K</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">CRT screen</td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="2" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">These temperatures are merely characteristic;<br />
considerable variation may be present.</td></tr>
</tbody></table><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">The color temperature of the electromagnetic radiation emitted from an ideal <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_body" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Black body">black body</a> is defined as its surface temperature in kelvins, or alternatively in <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mired" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Mired">mired</a></i> (micro-reciprocal Kelvin).<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-2" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_temperature#cite_note-2" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>3<span>]</span></a></sup> This permits the definition of a standard by which light sources are compared.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">To the extent that a hot surface emits <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermal_radiation" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Thermal radiation">thermal radiation</a> but is not an ideal black-body radiator, the color temperature of the light is not the actual temperature of the surface. An <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incandescent_light_bulb" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Incandescent light bulb">incandescent light bulb</a>'s light is thermal radiation and the bulb approximates an ideal black-body radiator, so its color temperature is essentially the temperature of the filament.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Many other light sources, such as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluorescent_lamp" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Fluorescent lamp">fluorescent lamps</a>, emit light primarily by processes other than thermal radiation. This means the emitted radiation does not follow the form of a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planck%27s_law" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Planck's law">black-body spectrum</a>. These sources are assigned what is known as a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_temperature#Correlated_color_temperature" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Color temperature">correlated color temperature</a> (CCT). CCT is the color temperature of a black body radiator which to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_vision" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Color vision">human color perception</a> most closely matches the light from the lamp. Because such an approximation is not required for incandescent light, the CCT for an incandescent light is simply its unadjusted temperature, derived from the comparison to a black body radiator.</div><h3 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; color: black; font-size: 17px; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Color_temperature&action=edit&section=2" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: The Sun">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="The_Sun">The Sun</span></h3><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">As the Sun crosses the sky, it may appear to be red, orange, yellow or white depending on its position. The changing color of the sun over the course of the day is mainly a result of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scattering" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Scattering">scattering</a> of light, and is not due to changes in black-body radiation. The blue color of the sky is caused by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rayleigh_scattering" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Rayleigh scattering">Rayleigh scattering</a> of the sunlight from the atmosphere, which tends to scatter blue light more than red light.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Daylight has a spectrum similar to that of a black body with a correlated color temperature of 6,500 K (D65 viewing standard) or 5,500 K (daylight-balanced photographic film standard).</div><div class="center" style="text-align: center; width: 815px;"><div class="thumb tnone" style="background-color: transparent; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; width: auto;"><div class="thumbinner" style="background-color: #f9f9f9; border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; font-size: 12px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; min-width: 100px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-top: 3px !important; text-align: center; width: 552px;"><a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Black-body-in-mireds-reversed.png" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="" class="thumbimage" height="94" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Black-body-in-mireds-reversed.png/550px-Black-body-in-mireds-reversed.png" style="background-color: white; border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-color: initial; border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; border-width: initial; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; vertical-align: middle;" width="550" /></a><div class="thumbcaption" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; font-size: 11px; line-height: 1.4em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-top: 3px !important; text-align: left;"><div class="magnify" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; float: right; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><a class="internal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Black-body-in-mireds-reversed.png" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; color: #0645ad; display: block; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-decoration: none;" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="http://bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.18/common/images/magnify-clip.png" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; border-width: initial; display: block; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; vertical-align: middle;" width="15" /></a></div>Hues of the Planckian locus, in the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mired" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-decoration: none;" title="Mired">mired</a> scale.</div></div></div></div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">For colors based on black body theory, blue occurs at higher temperatures, while red occurs at lower, cooler, temperatures. This is the opposite of the cultural associations attributed to colors, in which "red" is "hot", and "blue" is "cold".<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-3" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_temperature#cite_note-3" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>4<span>]</span></a></sup></div><h2 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; color: black; font-size: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.6em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Color_temperature&action=edit&section=3" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Color temperature applications">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Color_temperature_applications">Color temperature applications</span></h2><h3 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; color: black; font-size: 17px; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Color_temperature&action=edit&section=4" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Lighting">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Lighting">Lighting</span></h3><div class="thumb tright" style="background-color: transparent; clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1.3em; margin-left: 1.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><div class="thumbinner" style="background-color: #f9f9f9; border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; font-size: 12px; min-width: 100px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-top: 3px !important; text-align: center; width: 222px;"><a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Incand-3500-5500-color-temp-comparison.png" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="Color Temperature comparison of common electric lamps." class="thumbimage" height="178" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Incand-3500-5500-color-temp-comparison.png/220px-Incand-3500-5500-color-temp-comparison.png" style="background-color: white; border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-color: initial; border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" width="220" /></a><div class="thumbcaption" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; font-size: 11px; line-height: 1.4em; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-top: 3px !important; text-align: left;"><div class="magnify" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; float: right;"><a class="internal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Incand-3500-5500-color-temp-comparison.png" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; color: #0645ad; display: block; text-decoration: none;" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="http://bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.18/common/images/magnify-clip.png" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; border-width: initial; display: block; vertical-align: middle;" width="15" /></a></div>Color Temperature comparison of common electric lamps.</div></div></div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">For lighting building interiors, it is often important to take into account the color temperature of illumination. For example, a warmer (i.e., lower color temperature) light is often used in public areas to promote relaxation, while a cooler (higher color temperature) light is used to enhance concentration in offices.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-4" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_temperature#cite_note-4" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>5<span>]</span></a></sup></div><h3 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; color: black; font-size: 17px; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Color_temperature&action=edit&section=5" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Aquaculture">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Aquaculture">Aquaculture</span></h3><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">In fishkeeping, color temperature has different functions and foci, for different branches.</div><ul style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-image: url(data:image/png; list-style-type: square; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 1.5em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.3em; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">In freshwater aquaria, color temperature is generally of concern only for producing a more attractive display. Lights tend to be designed to produce an attractive spectrum, sometimes with secondary attention to keeping plants alive.</li>
</ul><ul style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-image: url(data:image/png; list-style-type: square; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 1.5em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.3em; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">In saltwater/reef aquaria, color temperatures are an essential part of tank health. Cooler temperatures are seen as getting through the water better, providing essential energy sources to the algae hosted in coral, that sustains it. Because coral receives intense, direct tropical sunlight, the focus was once on simulating this with 6,500 K lights. Higher temperature light sources have become more popular as their success became widely known...first 10,000 K, more recently 16,000 K and 20,000 K. Meanwhile, <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actinic" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Actinic">actinic</a> lighting is used to make the somewhat <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluorescent" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Fluorescent">fluorescent</a> colors of many corals and fish "pop", creating brighter "display" tanks.</li>
</ul><h3 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; color: black; font-size: 17px; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Color_temperature&action=edit&section=6" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Digital photography">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Digital_photography">Digital photography</span></h3><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">In <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_photography" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Digital photography">digital photography</a>, <i>color temperature</i> is sometimes used interchangeably with <i><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_balance" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="White balance">white balance</a></i>, which allow a remapping of color values to simulate variations in ambient color temperature. Most digital cameras and RAW image software provide presets simulating specific ambient values (e.g., sunny, cloudy, tungsten, etc.) while others allow explicit entry of white balance values in kelvins. These settings vary color values along the blue–yellow axis, while some software includes additional controls (sometimes labeled <i>tint</i>) adding the magenta–green axis, and are to some extent arbitrary and subject to artistic interpretation.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-5" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_temperature#cite_note-5" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>6<span>]</span></a></sup></div><h3 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; color: black; font-size: 17px; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Color_temperature&action=edit&section=7" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Photographic film">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Photographic_film">Photographic film</span></h3><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Photographic emulsion film sometimes appears to exaggerate the color of the light, since it does not adapt to lighting color as human visual perception does. An object that appears to the eye to be white may turn out to look very blue or orange in a photograph. The <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_balance" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Color balance">color balance</a>may need to be corrected while shooting or while printing to achieve a neutral color print.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Photographic film is made for specific light sources (most commonly daylight film and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tungsten_film" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Tungsten film">tungsten film</a>), and used properly, will create a neutral color print. Matching the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sensitometry" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Sensitometry">sensitivity of the film</a> to the color temperature of the light source is one way to balance color. If tungsten film is used indoors with incandescent lamps, the yellowish-orange light of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tungsten" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Tungsten">tungsten</a> incandescent bulbs will appear as white (3,200 K) in the photograph.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;"><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filter_(photography)" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Filter (photography)">Filters</a> on a camera lens, or <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_gel" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Color gel">color gels</a> over the light source(s) may also be used to correct color balance. When shooting with a bluish light (high color temperature) source such as on an overcast day, in the shade, in window light or if using tungsten film with white or blue light, a yellowish-orange filter will correct this. For shooting with daylight film (calibrated to 5,600 K) under warmer (low color temperature) light sources such as sunsets, candlelight or tungsten lighting, a bluish (e.g., #80A) filter may be used.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">If there is more than one light source with varied color temperatures, one way to balance the color is to use daylight film and place color-correcting gel filters over each light source.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Photographers sometimes use color temperature meters. Color temperature meters are usually designed to read only two regions along the visible spectrum (red and blue); more expensive ones read three regions (red, green, and blue). However, they are ineffective with sources such as fluorescent or discharge lamps, whose light varies in color and may be harder to correct for. Because it is often greenish, a magenta filter may correct it. More sophisticated <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colorimetry" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Colorimetry">colorimetry</a> tools can be used where such meters are lacking.</div><h3 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; color: black; font-size: 17px; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Color_temperature&action=edit&section=8" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Desktop publishing">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Desktop_publishing">Desktop publishing</span></h3><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">In the desktop publishing industry, it is important to know a monitor’s color temperature. Color matching software, such as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ColorSync" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="ColorSync">ColorSync</a> will measure a monitor's color temperature and then adjust its settings accordingly. This enables on-screen color to more closely match printed color. Common monitor color temperatures, along with matching <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_illuminant" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Standard illuminant">standard illuminants</a> in parentheses, are as follows:</div><ul style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-image: url(data:image/png; list-style-type: square; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 1.5em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.3em; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">5,000 K (D50)</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">5,500 K (D55)</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">6,500 K (<a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CIE_Standard_Illuminant_D65" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="CIE Standard Illuminant D65">D65</a>)</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">7,500 K (D75)</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">9,300 K.</li>
</ul><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Note: D50 is scientific shorthand for a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_illuminant" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Standard illuminant">Standard illuminant</a>: the daylight spectrum at a correlated color temperature of 5,000 K. (Similar definition for D55, D65 and D75.) Designations such as <i>D50</i> are used to help classify color temperatures of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light_table" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Light table">light tables</a> and viewing booths. When viewing a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reversal_film" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Reversal film">color slide</a> at a light table, it is important that the light be balanced properly so that the colors are not shifted towards the red or blue.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_camera" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Digital camera">Digital cameras</a>, web graphics, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DVD" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="DVD">DVDs</a>, etc. are normally designed for a 6,500 K color temperature. The <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SRGB_color_space" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="SRGB color space">sRGB standard</a> commonly used for images on the internet stipulates (among other things) a 6,500 K display whitepoint.</div><h3 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; color: black; font-size: 17px; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Color_temperature&action=edit&section=9" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: TV, video, and digital still cameras">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="TV.2C_video.2C_and_digital_still_cameras">TV, video, and digital still cameras</span></h3><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">The <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NTSC" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="NTSC">NTSC</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PAL" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="PAL">PAL</a> TV norms call for a compliant TV screen to display an electrically black and white signal (minimal color saturation) at a color temperature of 6,500 K. On many consumer-grade televisions, there is a very noticeable deviation from this requirement. However, higher-end consumer-grade televisions can have their color temperatures adjusted to 6,500 K by using a preprogrammed setting or a custom calibration. Current versions of <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ATSC_(standards)" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="ATSC (standards)">ATSC</a> explicitly call for the color temperature data to be included in the data stream, but old versions of ATSC allowed this data to be omitted. In this case, current versions of ATSC cite default colorimetry standards depending on the format. Both of the cited standards specify a 6,500 K color temperature.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Most video and digital still cameras can adjust for color temperature by zooming into a white or neutral colored object and setting the manual "white balance" (telling the camera that "this object is white"); the camera then shows true white as white and adjusts all the other colors accordingly. White-balancing is necessary especially when indoors under fluorescent lighting and when moving the camera from one lighting situation to another. Most cameras also have an automatic white balance function that attempts to determine the color of the light and correct accordingly. While these settings were once unreliable, they are much improved in today's digital cameras, and will produce an accurate white balance in a wide variety of lighting situations.</div><h3 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; color: black; font-size: 17px; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Color_temperature&action=edit&section=10" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Artistic application via control of color temperature">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Artistic_application_via_control_of_color_temperature">Artistic application via control of color temperature</span></h3><div class="thumb tright" style="background-color: transparent; clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1.3em; margin-left: 1.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><div class="thumbinner" style="background-color: #f9f9f9; border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; font-size: 12px; min-width: 100px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-top: 3px !important; text-align: center; width: 182px;"><a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Example_different_color_temp.jpg" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="" class="thumbimage" height="119" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Example_different_color_temp.jpg/180px-Example_different_color_temp.jpg" style="background-color: white; border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-color: initial; border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; font-size: 11px; line-height: 1.4em; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-top: 3px !important; text-align: left;"><div class="magnify" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; float: right;"><a class="internal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Example_different_color_temp.jpg" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; color: #0645ad; display: block; text-decoration: none;" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="http://bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.18/common/images/magnify-clip.png" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; border-width: initial; display: block; vertical-align: middle;" width="15" /></a></div>The house above appears a light cream during the midday, but seems a bluish white here in the dim light before full sunrise. Note the different color temperature of the sunrise in the background.</div></div></div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Experimentation with color temperature is obvious in many <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanley_Kubrick" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Stanley Kubrick">Stanley Kubrick</a> films; for instance in <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eyes_Wide_Shut" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Eyes Wide Shut">Eyes Wide Shut</a></i> the light coming in from a window was almost always conspicuously blue, whereas the light from lamps on end tables was fairly orange. Indoor lights typically give off a yellow hue; fluorescent and natural lighting tends to be more blue.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Video <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camera_operator" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Camera operator">camera operators</a> can white-balance objects which aren't white, downplaying the color of the object used for white-balancing. For instance, they can bring more warmth into a picture by white-balancing off something light blue, such as faded blue denim; in this way white-balancing can serve in place of a filter or lighting gel when those are not available.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cinematographer" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Cinematographer">Cinematographers</a> do not "white balance" in the same way as video camera operators; they can use techniques such as filters, choice of film stock, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pre-flashing" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Pre-flashing">pre-flashing</a>, and after shooting, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_grading" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Color grading">color grading</a> (both by exposure at the labs and also digitally). Cinematographers also work closely with set designers and lighting crews to achieve the desired effects.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">For artists, most pigments and papers have a cool or warm cast, as the human eye can detect even a minute amount of saturation. Gray mixed with yellow, orange or red is a "warm gray". Green, blue, or purple, create "cool grays". Note that this sense of <i>temperature</i> is the reverse of that of real temperature; bluer is described as "cooler" even though it corresponds to a higher-temperature <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blackbody" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Blackbody">blackbody</a>.</div><table style="background-color: white; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; float: left; font-size: 12px; margin-bottom: 12px; margin-left: 10px; margin-right: 12px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 5px; padding-left: 5px; padding-right: 5px; padding-top: 5px;"><tbody>
<tr align="center"><td colspan="2"><a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Grays.svg" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="Grays.svg" height="123" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Grays.svg/240px-Grays.svg.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" width="240" /></a></td></tr>
<tr align="center"><td><b>"Warm" gray</b></td><td><b>"Cool" gray</b></td></tr>
<tr align="center"><td>Mixed with 6% yellow.</td><td>Mixed with 6% blue.</td></tr>
</tbody></table><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;"><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lighting_designers" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Lighting designers">Lighting designers</a> sometimes select <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filter_(optics)" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Filter (optics)">filters</a> by color temperature, commonly to match light that is theoretically white. Since fixtures using <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metal_halide_lamp" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Metal halide lamp">discharge</a> type lamps produce a light of considerably higher color temperature than <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incandescent_light_bulb" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Incandescent light bulb">tungsten lamps</a>, using the two in conjunction could potentially produce a stark contrast, so sometimes fixtures with HID lamps, commonly producing light of 6,000–7,000 K, are fitted with 3,200 K filters to emulate tungsten light. Fixtures with color mixing features or with multiple colors, (if including 3,200 K) are also capable of producing tungsten like light. Color temperature may also be a factor when selecting <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_light" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Electric light">lamps</a>, since each is likely to have a different color temperature.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-6" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_temperature#cite_note-6" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>7<span>]</span></a></sup></div><h2 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; color: black; font-size: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.6em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Color_temperature&action=edit&section=11" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Correlated color temperature">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Correlated_color_temperature">Correlated color temperature</span></h2><blockquote class="templatequote" style="margin-top: 0px;"><div>The <b>correlated color temperature</b> (T<sub style="line-height: 1em;">cp</sub>) is the temperature of the Planckian radiator whose perceived colour most closely resembles that of a given stimulus at the same brightness and under specified viewing conditions</div><div class="templatequotecite" style="line-height: 1em; margin-top: 0px; padding-left: 2em; text-align: left;">— <a class="external text" href="http://www.cie.co.at/publ/abst/17-4-89.html" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: url(data:image/png; background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #3366bb; padding-right: 13px; text-decoration: none;">CIE/IEC 17.4:1987</a>, <cite style="font-size: 11px; font-style: inherit;">International Lighting Vocabulary (<a class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/3900734070" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">ISBN 3900734070</a>)<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-7" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_temperature#cite_note-7" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>8<span>]</span></a></sup></cite></div></blockquote><h3 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; color: black; font-size: 17px; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Color_temperature&action=edit&section=12" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Motivation">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Motivation">Motivation</span></h3><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_body" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Black body">Black body</a> radiators are the reference by which the whiteness of light sources is judged. A black body can be described by its color temperature, whose hues are depicted above. By analogy, nearly-Planckian light sources such as certain <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluorescent_lamp" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Fluorescent lamp">fluorescent</a> or <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-intensity_discharge_lamp" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="High-intensity discharge lamp">high-intensity discharge lamps</a> can be judged by their <i>correlated</i> color temperature (CCT); the color temperature of the Planckian radiator that best approximates them. The question is: what is the relationship between the light source's relative <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spectral_power_distribution" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Spectral power distribution">spectral power distribution</a> and its correlated color temperature?</div><h3 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; color: black; font-size: 17px; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Color_temperature&action=edit&section=13" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Background">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Background">Background</span></h3><div class="thumb tright" style="background-color: transparent; clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1.3em; margin-left: 1.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><div class="thumbinner" style="background-color: #f9f9f9; border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; font-size: 12px; min-width: 100px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-top: 3px !important; text-align: center; width: 202px;"><a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Judd%27s_(r,g)_diagram.svg" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="" class="thumbimage" height="285" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Judd%27s_%28r%2Cg%29_diagram.svg/200px-Judd%27s_%28r%2Cg%29_diagram.svg.png" style="background-color: white; border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-color: initial; border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; font-size: 11px; line-height: 1.4em; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-top: 3px !important; text-align: left;"><div class="magnify" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; float: right;"><a class="internal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Judd%27s_(r,g)_diagram.svg" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; color: #0645ad; display: block; text-decoration: none;" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="http://bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.18/common/images/magnify-clip.png" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; border-width: initial; display: block; vertical-align: middle;" width="15" /></a></div>Judd's (r,g) diagram. The concentric curves indicate the loci of constant<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colorfulness" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Colorfulness">purity</a>.</div></div></div><div class="thumb tright" style="background-color: transparent; clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1.3em; margin-left: 1.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><div class="thumbinner" style="background-color: #f9f9f9; border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; font-size: 12px; min-width: 100px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-top: 3px !important; text-align: center; width: 202px;"><a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Judd%27s_Maxwell_triangle.svg" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="" class="thumbimage" height="166" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Judd%27s_Maxwell_triangle.svg/200px-Judd%27s_Maxwell_triangle.svg.png" style="background-color: white; border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-color: initial; border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; font-size: 11px; line-height: 1.4em; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-top: 3px !important; text-align: left;"><div class="magnify" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; float: right;"><a class="internal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Judd%27s_Maxwell_triangle.svg" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; color: #0645ad; display: block; text-decoration: none;" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="http://bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.18/common/images/magnify-clip.png" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; border-width: initial; display: block; vertical-align: middle;" width="15" /></a></div>Judd's Maxwell triangle. Planckian locus in red. Translating from trilinear co-ordinates into Cartesian co-ordinates leads to the next diagram.</div></div></div><div class="thumb tright" style="background-color: transparent; clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1.3em; margin-left: 1.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><div class="thumbinner" style="background-color: #f9f9f9; border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; font-size: 12px; min-width: 100px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-top: 3px !important; text-align: center; width: 202px;"><a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Judd%27s-UCS.png" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="" class="thumbimage" height="120" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Judd%27s-UCS.png/200px-Judd%27s-UCS.png" style="background-color: white; border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-color: initial; border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; font-size: 11px; line-height: 1.4em; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-top: 3px !important; text-align: left;"><div class="magnify" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; float: right;"><a class="internal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Judd%27s-UCS.png" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; color: #0645ad; display: block; text-decoration: none;" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="http://bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.18/common/images/magnify-clip.png" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; border-width: initial; display: block; vertical-align: middle;" width="15" /></a></div>Judd's uniform chromaticity space (UCS), with the Planckian locus and the isotherms from 1,000 K to 10,000 K, perpendicular to the locus. Judd calculated the isotherms in this space before translating them back into the (x,y) chromaticity space, as depicted in the diagram at the top of the article.</div></div></div><div class="thumb tright" style="background-color: transparent; clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1.3em; margin-left: 1.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><div class="thumbinner" style="background-color: #f9f9f9; border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; font-size: 12px; min-width: 100px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-top: 3px !important; text-align: center; width: 202px;"><a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Planckian-locus-in-mireds.png" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="" class="thumbimage" height="89" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Planckian-locus-in-mireds.png/200px-Planckian-locus-in-mireds.png" style="background-color: white; border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-color: initial; border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; font-size: 11px; line-height: 1.4em; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-top: 3px !important; text-align: left;"><div class="magnify" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; float: right;"><a class="internal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Planckian-locus-in-mireds.png" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; color: #0645ad; display: block; text-decoration: none;" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="http://bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.18/common/images/magnify-clip.png" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; border-width: initial; display: block; vertical-align: middle;" width="15" /></a></div>Close up of the Planckian locus in the CIE 1960 UCS, with the isotherms in<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mired" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Mired">mireds</a>. Note the even spacing of the isotherms when using the reciprocal temperature scale, and compare with the similar figure below. The even spacing of the isotherms on the locus implies that the mired scale is a better measure of perceptual color difference than the temperature scale.</div></div></div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">The notion of using Planckian radiators as a yardstick against which to judge other light sources is not a new one.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-8" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_temperature#cite_note-8" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>9<span>]</span></a></sup> In 1923, writing about "grading of illuminants with reference to quality of color…the temperature of the source as an index of the quality of color", Priest essentially described CCT as we understand it today, going so far as to use the term <i>apparent color temperature</i>, and astutely recognized three cases:<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-priest_9-0" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_temperature#cite_note-priest-9" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>10<span>]</span></a></sup></div><ul style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-image: url(data:image/png; list-style-type: square; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 1.5em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.3em; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">"Those for which the spectral distribution of energy is identical with that given by the Planckian formula."</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">"Those for which the spectral distribution of energy is not identical with that given by the Planckian formula, but still is of such a form that the quality of the color evoked is the same as would be evoked by the energy from a Planckian radiator at the given color temperature."</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">"Those for which the spectral distribution of energy is such that the color can be matched <i>only approximately</i> by a stimulus of the Planckian form of spectral distribution."</li>
</ul><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Several important developments occurred in 1931. In chronological order:</div><ol style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-image: none; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 3.2em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.3em; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raymond_Davis,_Jr." style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Raymond Davis, Jr.">Davis</a> published a paper on <i>correlated color temperature</i> (his term). Referring to the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planckian_locus" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Planckian locus">Planckian locus</a> on the r-g diagram, he defined the CCT as the average of the <i>primary component temperatures</i> (RGB CCTs), using <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trilinear_coordinates" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Trilinear coordinates">trilinear coordinates</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-davis_10-0" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_temperature#cite_note-davis-10" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>11<span>]</span></a></sup></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">The CIE announced the <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XYZ_color_space" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="XYZ color space">XYZ color space</a>.</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Judd published a paper on the nature of "<a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Just_noticeable_difference" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Just noticeable difference">least perceptible differences</a>" with respect to chromatic stimuli. By empirical means he determined that the difference in sensation, which he termed <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_difference" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Color difference">ΔE</a> for a "discriminatory step between colors…Empfindung" (German for sensation) was proportional to the distance of the colors on the chromaticity diagram. Referring to the (r,g) chromaticity diagram depicted aside, he hypothesized that:<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-judd_11-0" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_temperature#cite_note-judd-11" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>12<span>]</span></a></sup></li>
</ol><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;">
<dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><i>K</i>Δ<i>E</i> = |<i>c</i><sub style="line-height: 1em;">1</sub> - <i>c</i><sub style="line-height: 1em;">2</sub>| = max(|<i>r</i><sub style="line-height: 1em;">1</sub> - <i>r</i><sub style="line-height: 1em;">2</sub>|, |<i>g</i><sub style="line-height: 1em;">1</sub> - <i>g</i><sub style="line-height: 1em;">2</sub>|)</dd></dl></dd></dl><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">These developments paved the way for the development of new chromaticity spaces that are more suited to the estimation of correlated color temperatures and chromaticity differences. Bridging the concepts of color difference and color temperature, Priest made the observation that the eye is sensitive to constant differences in <i>reciprocal</i> temperature:<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-12" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_temperature#cite_note-12" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>13<span>]</span></a></sup></div><blockquote class="templatequote" style="margin-top: 0px;"><div>A difference of one <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mired" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Mired">micro-reciprocal-degree</a> (μrd) is fairly representative of the doubtfully perceptible difference under the most favorable conditions of observation.</div></blockquote><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Priest proposed to use "the scale of temperature as a scale for arranging the chromaticities of the several illuminants in a serial order." Over the next few years, Judd published three more significant papers:</div><ol style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-image: none; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 3.2em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.3em; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">The first verified the findings of Priest,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-priest_9-1" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_temperature#cite_note-priest-9" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>10<span>]</span></a></sup> Davis,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-davis_10-1" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_temperature#cite_note-davis-10" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>11<span>]</span></a></sup> and Judd,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-judd_11-1" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_temperature#cite_note-judd-11" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>12<span>]</span></a></sup> with a paper on sensitivity to change in color temperature.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-13" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_temperature#cite_note-13" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>14<span>]</span></a></sup></li>
</ol><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">The second proposed a new chromaticity space, guided by a principle that has become the holy grail of color spaces: <a class="new" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Perceptual_uniformity&action=edit&redlink=1" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #ba0000; text-decoration: none;" title="Perceptual uniformity (page does not exist)">perceptual uniformity</a> (chromaticity distance should be commensurate with perceptual difference). By means of a <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Projective_transformation" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Projective transformation">projective transformation</a>, Judd found a more <i>uniform chromaticity space</i> (UCS) in which to find the CCT. Judd determined the <i>nearest color temperature</i> by simply finding the nearest point on the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planckian_locus" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Planckian locus">Planckian locus</a> to the chromaticity of the stimulus on<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Clerk_Maxwell" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="James Clerk Maxwell">Maxwell</a>'s <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_triangle" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Color triangle">color triangle</a>, depicted aside. The <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transformation_matrix" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Transformation matrix">transformation matrix</a> he used to convert X,Y,Z tristimulus values to R,G,B coordinates was:<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-14" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_temperature#cite_note-14" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>15<span>]</span></a></sup></div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;"><img alt="\begin{bmatrix} R \\ G \\ B \end{bmatrix} = \begin{bmatrix} 3.1956 & 2.4478 & -0.1434 \\ -2.5455 & 7.0492 & 0.9963 \\ 0.0000 & 0.0000 & 1.0000 \end{bmatrix} \begin{bmatrix} X \\ Y \\ Z \end{bmatrix}" class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/0/5/b/05b7065868bd033d76c40e02307fe4cf.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; vertical-align: middle;" />.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">From this one can find these chromaticities:<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-15" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_temperature#cite_note-15" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>16<span>]</span></a></sup></div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;"><img alt="u=\frac{0.4661x+0.1593y}{y-0.15735x+0.2424}, \quad v=\frac{0.6581y}{y-0.15735x+0.2424}" class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/6/f/d/6fd92097acca979fd13d8430fc060aa9.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; vertical-align: middle;" /></div><ol style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-image: none; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 3.2em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.3em; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">The third depicted the locus of the isothermal chromaticities on the CIE 1931 <i>x,y</i> chromaticity diagram.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-16" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_temperature#cite_note-16" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>17<span>]</span></a></sup> Since the isothermal points formed <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surface_normal" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Surface normal">normals</a> on his UCS diagram, transformation back into the xy plane revealed them still to be lines, but no longer perpendicular to the locus.</li>
</ol><div class="thumb tright" style="background-color: transparent; clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1.3em; margin-left: 1.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><div class="thumbinner" style="background-color: #f9f9f9; border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; font-size: 12px; min-width: 100px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-top: 3px !important; text-align: center; width: 252px;"><a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:CIE_1960_UCS.png" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="" class="thumbimage" height="172" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/CIE_1960_UCS.png/250px-CIE_1960_UCS.png" style="background-color: white; border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-color: initial; border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; font-size: 11px; line-height: 1.4em; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-top: 3px !important; text-align: left;"><div class="magnify" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; float: right;"><a class="internal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:CIE_1960_UCS.png" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; color: #0645ad; display: block; text-decoration: none;" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="http://bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.18/common/images/magnify-clip.png" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; border-width: initial; display: block; vertical-align: middle;" width="15" /></a></div>MacAdam's "uniform chromaticity scale" diagram; a simplification of Judd's UCS.</div></div></div><h3 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; color: black; font-size: 17px; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Color_temperature&action=edit&section=14" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Calculation">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Calculation">Calculation</span></h3><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Judd's idea of determining the nearest point to the Planckian locus on a uniform chromaticity space is current. In 1937, MacAdam suggested a "modified uniform chromaticity scale diagram", based on certain simplifying geometrical considerations:<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-17" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_temperature#cite_note-17" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>18<span>]</span></a></sup></div><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><img alt="u = \frac{4x}{-2x+12y+3}, \quad v = \frac{6y}{-2x+12y+3}" class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/3/f/5/3f52bb277f1dfa3a1c251c811a6103b8.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" /></dd></dl><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">This (u,v) chromaticity space became the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CIE_1960_color_space" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="CIE 1960 color space">CIE 1960 color space</a>, which is still used to calculate the CCT (even though MacAdam did not devise it with this purpose in mind).<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-18" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_temperature#cite_note-18" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>19<span>]</span></a></sup>Using other chromaticity spaces, such as u'v', leads to non-standard results that may nevertheless be perceptually meaningful.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-19" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_temperature#cite_note-19" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>20<span>]</span></a></sup></div><div class="center" style="text-align: center; width: 815px;"><div class="thumb tnone" style="background-color: transparent; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; width: auto;"><div class="thumbinner" style="background-color: #f9f9f9; border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; font-size: 12px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; min-width: 100px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-top: 3px !important; text-align: center; width: 552px;"><a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Planckian-locus.png" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="" class="thumbimage" height="246" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Planckian-locus.png/550px-Planckian-locus.png" style="background-color: white; border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-color: initial; border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; border-width: initial; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; vertical-align: middle;" width="550" /></a><div class="thumbcaption" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; font-size: 11px; line-height: 1.4em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-top: 3px !important; text-align: left;"><div class="magnify" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; float: right; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><a class="internal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Planckian-locus.png" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; color: #0645ad; display: block; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-decoration: none;" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="http://bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.18/common/images/magnify-clip.png" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; border-width: initial; display: block; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; vertical-align: middle;" width="15" /></a></div>Close up of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CIE_1960_color_space" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-decoration: none;" title="CIE 1960 color space">CIE 1960 UCS</a>. The isotherms are perpendicular to the Planckian locus, and are drawn to indicate the maximum distance from the locus that the CIE considers the correlated color temperature to be meaningful: <img alt="\scriptstyle\Delta uv=\pm 0.05" class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/b/9/2/b922e05c4fb393119672052f11fc02f7.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; vertical-align: middle;" /></div></div></div></div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">The distance from the locus (i.e., degree of departure from a black body) is traditionally indicated in units of <img alt="\scriptstyle\Delta uv" class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/5/a/6/5a692f27a4815f93188752873700f15a.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; vertical-align: middle;" />; positive for points above the locus. This concept of distance has evolved to become <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_difference#Delta_E" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Color difference">Delta E</a>, which continues to be used today.</div><h4 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; color: black; font-size: 15px; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Color_temperature&action=edit&section=15" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Robertson's method">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Robertson.27s_method">Robertson's method</span></h4><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Before the advent of powerful, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_computer" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Personal computer">personal computers</a>, it was common to estimate the correlated color temperature by way of interpolation from look-up tables and charts.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-kelly_20-0" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_temperature#cite_note-kelly-20" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>21<span>]</span></a></sup> The most famous such method is Robertson's,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-21" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_temperature#cite_note-21" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>22<span>]</span></a></sup> who took advantage of the relatively even spacing of the mired scale (see above) to calculate the CCT T<sub style="line-height: 1em;">c</sub> using <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_interpolation" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Linear interpolation">linear interpolation</a> of the isotherm's mired values:<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-22" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_temperature#cite_note-22" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>23<span>]</span></a></sup></div><div class="thumb tright" style="background-color: transparent; clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1.3em; margin-left: 1.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><div class="thumbinner" style="background-color: #f9f9f9; border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; font-size: 12px; min-width: 100px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-top: 3px !important; text-align: center; width: 302px;"><a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Robertson%27s_CCT_computation_method.svg" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="" class="thumbimage" height="288" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Robertson%27s_CCT_computation_method.svg/300px-Robertson%27s_CCT_computation_method.svg.png" style="background-color: white; border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-color: initial; border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; font-size: 11px; line-height: 1.4em; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-top: 3px !important; text-align: left;"><div class="magnify" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; float: right;"><a class="internal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Robertson%27s_CCT_computation_method.svg" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; color: #0645ad; display: block; text-decoration: none;" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="http://bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.18/common/images/magnify-clip.png" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; border-width: initial; display: block; vertical-align: middle;" width="15" /></a></div>Computation of the CCT T<sub style="line-height: 1em;">c</sub> corresponding to the chromaticity coordinate <img alt="\scriptstyle (u_T,v_T)" class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/e/5/0/e501bef9b7b939ba88a866611dc83fc2.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" /> in the CIE 1960 UCS.</div></div></div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;"><img alt="\frac{1}{T_c}=\frac{1}{T_i}+\frac{\theta_1}{\theta_1+\theta_2} \left( \frac{1}{T_{i+1}} - \frac{1}{T_i} \right)" class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/f/8/b/f8b40123f16256354acb76dc42688e36.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; vertical-align: middle;" /></div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">where <img alt="\scriptstyle T_i" class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/5/b/6/5b6011019a5e1e0f88145a5f71e77b6f.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; vertical-align: middle;" /> and <img alt="\scriptstyle T_{i+1}" class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/2/6/6/2669be3ed4101a882bdd6e1690f38a58.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; vertical-align: middle;" /> are the color temperatures of the look-up isotherms and i is chosen such that <img alt="\scriptstyle T_i < T_c < T_{i+1}" class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/a/b/d/abd58a7bc225bfcbf6591330ea3fd741.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; vertical-align: middle;" />. (Furthermore, the test chromaticity lies between the only two adjacent lines for which <img alt="\scriptstyle d_i/d_{i+1}<0" class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/1/9/6/196c3af42ced24a1a016db9cc3467741.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; vertical-align: middle;" />.)</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">If the isotherms are tight enough, one can assume <img alt="\scriptstyle\theta_1/\theta_2 \approx \sin \theta_1/\sin \theta_2" class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/7/e/c/7ec056b268dfddd9522492d856a10c0e.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; vertical-align: middle;" />, leading to</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;"><img alt="\frac{1}{T_c}=\frac{1}{T_i}+\frac{d_i}{d_i-d_{i+1}} \left( \frac{1}{T_{i+1}} - \frac{1}{T_i} \right)" class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/9/b/b/9bb0985202a0d57f0b2074208fbaef22.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; vertical-align: middle;" /></div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">The distance of the test point to the i'th isotherm is given by</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;"><img alt="d_i=\frac{ (v_T-v_i)-m_i (u_T-u_i) }{\sqrt {1+m_i^2}}" class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/4/5/e/45e88930ab8c4c17f3d162c5d5495dce.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; vertical-align: middle;" /></div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">where <img alt="\scriptstyle (u_i,v_i)" class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/8/9/e/89ed1fb448cbae0a92eb501382d5b992.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; vertical-align: middle;" /> is the chromaticity coordinate of the i'th isotherm on the Planckian locus and m<sub style="line-height: 1em;">i</sub> is the isotherm's <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slope" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Slope">slope</a>. Since it is perpendicular to the locus, it follows that <img alt="\scriptstyle m_i=-1/l_i" class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/8/8/f/88f212e7f10750c30f79ca6e4a380eff.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; vertical-align: middle;" /> where l<sub style="line-height: 1em;">i</sub> is the slope of the locus at <img alt="\scriptstyle (u_i,v_i)" class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/8/9/e/89ed1fb448cbae0a92eb501382d5b992.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; vertical-align: middle;" />.</div><h3 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; color: black; font-size: 17px; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Color_temperature&action=edit&section=16" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Precautions">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Precautions">Precautions</span></h3><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Although the CCT can be calculated for any chromaticity coordinate, the result is meaningful only if the light sources are nearly white.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-23" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_temperature#cite_note-23" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>24<span>]</span></a></sup> The CIE recommends that "The concept of correlated color temperature should not be used if the chromaticity of the test source differs more than [<img alt="\scriptstyle\Delta_{uv} = 5 \times 10^{-2}" class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/5/f/d/5fdd6443b3f7ea11ed85ff14c60f017b.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; vertical-align: middle;" />] from the Planckian radiator."<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-schanda_24-0" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_temperature#cite_note-schanda-24" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>25<span>]</span></a></sup> Beyond a certain value of <img alt="\scriptstyle\Delta uv" class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/5/a/6/5a692f27a4815f93188752873700f15a.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; vertical-align: middle;" />, a chromaticity co-ordinate may be equidistant to two points on the locus, causing ambiguity in the CCT.</div><h3 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; color: black; font-size: 17px; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Color_temperature&action=edit&section=17" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Approximation">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Approximation">Approximation</span></h3><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">If a narrow range of color temperatures is considered—those encapsulating daylight being the most practical case—one can approximate the Planckian locus in order to calculate the CCT in terms of chromaticity coordinates. Following Kelly's observation that the isotherms intersect in the purple region near (<i>x</i>=0.325, <i>y</i>=0.154),<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-kelly_20-1" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_temperature#cite_note-kelly-20" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>21<span>]</span></a></sup> McCamy proposed this cubic approximation:<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-25" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_temperature#cite_note-25" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>26<span>]</span></a></sup></div><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><i>CCT</i>(<i>x</i>, <i>y</i>) = -449<i>n</i><sup style="line-height: 1em;">3</sup> + 3525<i>n</i><sup style="line-height: 1em;">2</sup> - 6823.3<i>n</i> + 5520.33</dd></dl><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">where <i>n</i> = (<i>x</i> - <i>x<sub style="line-height: 1em;">e</sub></i>)/(<i>y</i> - <i>y<sub style="line-height: 1em;">e</sub></i>) is the inverse slope line and (<i>x<sub style="line-height: 1em;">e</sub></i> = 0.3320, <i>y<sub style="line-height: 1em;">e</sub></i> = 0.1858) is the "epicenter"; quite close to the intersection point mentioned by Kelly. The maximum absolute error for color temperatures ranging from 2856 (illuminant A) to 6504 (<a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CIE_Standard_Illuminant_D65" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="CIE Standard Illuminant D65">D65</a>) is under 2 K.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">A more recent proposal, using exponential terms, considerably extends the applicable range by adding a second epicenter for high color temperatures:<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-26" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_temperature#cite_note-26" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>27<span>]</span></a></sup></div><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><i>CCT</i>(<i>x</i>,<i>y</i>) = <i>A</i><sub style="line-height: 1em;">0</sub> + <i>A</i><sub style="line-height: 1em;">1</sub>exp(-<i>n</i>/<i>t</i><sub style="line-height: 1em;">1</sub>) + <i>A</i><sub style="line-height: 1em;">2</sub>exp(-<i>n</i>/<i>t</i><sub style="line-height: 1em;">2</sub>) + <i>A</i><sub style="line-height: 1em;">3</sub>exp(-<i>n</i>/<i>t</i><sub style="line-height: 1em;">3</sub>)</dd></dl><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">where n is as before and the other constants are defined below:</div><table class="wikitable" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #f9f9f9; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-collapse: collapse; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; color: black; font-size: 13px; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 1em; margin-top: 1em;"><tbody>
<tr><th style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"></th><th style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;">3–50 kK</th><th style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;">50–800 kK</th></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>x<sub style="line-height: 1em;">e</sub></i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">0.3366</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">0.3356</td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>y<sub style="line-height: 1em;">e</sub></i></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">0.1735</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">0.1691</td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>A</i><sub style="line-height: 1em;">0</sub></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">-949.86315</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">36284.48953</td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>A</i><sub style="line-height: 1em;">1</sub></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">6253.80338</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">0.00228</td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>t</i><sub style="line-height: 1em;">1</sub></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">0.92159</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">0.07861</td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>A</i><sub style="line-height: 1em;">2</sub></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">28.70599</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">5.4535×10<sup style="line-height: 1em;">−36</sup></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>t</i><sub style="line-height: 1em;">2</sub></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">0.20039</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">0.01543</td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>A</i><sub style="line-height: 1em;">3</sub></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">0.00004</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><i>t</i><sub style="line-height: 1em;">3</sub></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">0.07125</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td></tr>
</tbody></table><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">The inverse calculation, from color temperature to corresponding chromaticity co-ordinates, is discussed in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planckian_locus#Approximation" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Planckian locus">Planckian locus</a>.</div><h2 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; color: black; font-size: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.6em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Color_temperature&action=edit&section=18" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Color rendering index">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Color_rendering_index">Color rendering index</span></h2><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">The <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Commission_on_Illumination" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="International Commission on Illumination">CIE</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_rendering_index" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Color rendering index">color rendering index</a> (CRI) is a method to determine how well a light source's illumination of eight sample patches compares to the illumination provided by a reference source. Cited together, the CRI and CCT give a numerical estimate of what reference (ideal) light source best approximates a particular artificial light, and what the difference is.</div><h2 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; color: black; font-size: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.6em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Color_temperature&action=edit&section=19" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Spectral power distribution">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Spectral_power_distribution">Spectral power distribution</span></h2><div class="thumb tright" style="background-color: transparent; clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1.3em; margin-left: 1.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><div class="thumbinner" style="background-color: #f9f9f9; border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; font-size: 12px; min-width: 100px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-top: 3px !important; text-align: center; width: 424px;"><a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Spectral_Power_Distributions.png" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="" class="thumbimage" height="153" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b0/Spectral_Power_Distributions.png" style="background-color: white; border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-color: initial; border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" width="422" /></a><div class="thumbcaption" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; font-size: 11px; line-height: 1.4em; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-top: 3px !important; text-align: left;">Here is an example of how different an incandescent lamp's SPD graph is from that of a fluorescent lamp.</div></div></div>John Michael Acehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16447213303343013873noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1050591295065099165.post-42475771969413309452011-10-28T20:16:00.001-07:002011-10-28T20:16:55.342-07:00The Red-Eye Effect<span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px;"></span><br />
<div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">The <b>red-eye effect</b> in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photography" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Photography">photography</a> is the common appearance of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Red">red</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pupil" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Pupil">pupils</a> in color <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photograph" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Photograph">photographs</a>of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eye" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Eye">eyes</a>. It occurs when using a photographic <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flash_(photography)" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Flash (photography)">flash</a> very close to the camera lens (as with most<a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Point_and_shoot_camera" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Point and shoot camera">compact cameras</a>), in ambient low light. The effect appears in the eyes of humans and animals that have no <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tapetum_lucidum" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Tapetum lucidum">tapetum lucidum</a>, hence no <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tapetum_lucidum" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Tapetum lucidum">eyeshine</a>,<sup class="Template-Fact" style="line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources from June 2008">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> and rarely in animals that have a tapetum lucidum. The red-eye effect can also be seen when one human observes another when there is a bright lightsource nearby.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Theatrical followspot operators, positioned nearly coincidentally with a very bright light and somewhat distant from the actors, occasionally witness red-eye in actors on stage. The effect is not visible to the rest of the audience because it is reliant on the very small angle between the followspot operator and the light.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">The feature film <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blade_Runner" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Blade Runner">Blade Runner</a> intentionally induced a red-eye effect to indicate that certain characters were "replicants" (according to the story, an artificial life-form). The effect relied on a semi-silvered mirror directing light at the actors on the same incidence as the camera.</div><table class="toc" id="toc" style="background-color: #f9f9f9; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; font-size: 12px; padding-bottom: 5px; padding-left: 5px; padding-right: 5px; padding-top: 5px;"><tbody>
<tr><td><div id="toctitle" style="direction: ltr; text-align: center;"><h2 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; border-width: initial; color: black; display: inline; font-size: 12px; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0.6em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; width: auto;">Contents</h2> <span class="toctoggle" style="font-size: 11px;"> [<a class="internal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red-eye_effect#" id="togglelink" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">hide</a>] </span></div><ul style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-image: none; list-style-type: none; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.3em; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left;"><li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red-eye_effect#Causes" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Causes</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red-eye_effect#Similar_effects" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Similar effects</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-3" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red-eye_effect#Photography_techniques_for_prevention_and_removal" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Photography techniques for prevention and removal</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-4" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red-eye_effect#References" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a></li>
</ul></td></tr>
</tbody></table><h2 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; color: black; font-size: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.6em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Red-eye_effect&action=edit&section=1" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Causes">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Causes">Causes</span></h2><div class="thumb tleft" style="background-color: transparent; clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 1.4em; margin-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><div class="thumbinner" style="background-color: #f9f9f9; border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; font-size: 12px; min-width: 100px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-top: 3px !important; text-align: center; width: 222px;"><a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Husky-redeye.jpg" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="" class="thumbimage" height="177" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Husky-redeye.jpg/220px-Husky-redeye.jpg" style="background-color: white; border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-color: initial; border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" width="220" /></a><div class="thumbcaption" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; font-size: 11px; line-height: 1.4em; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-top: 3px !important; text-align: left;"><div class="magnify" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; float: right;"><a class="internal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Husky-redeye.jpg" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; color: #0645ad; display: block; text-decoration: none;" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="http://bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.18/common/images/magnify-clip.png" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; border-width: initial; display: block; vertical-align: middle;" width="15" /></a></div>Red-eye effect in dog's blue eye only</div></div></div><div class="thumb tright" style="background-color: transparent; clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1.3em; margin-left: 1.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><div class="thumbinner" style="background-color: #f9f9f9; border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; font-size: 12px; min-width: 100px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-top: 3px !important; text-align: center; width: 222px;"><a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:HebrideanSheepBlueEyes.jpg" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="" class="thumbimage" height="147" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/HebrideanSheepBlueEyes.jpg/220px-HebrideanSheepBlueEyes.jpg" style="background-color: white; border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-color: initial; border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" width="220" /></a><div class="thumbcaption" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; font-size: 11px; line-height: 1.4em; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-top: 3px !important; text-align: left;"><div class="magnify" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; float: right;"><a class="internal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:HebrideanSheepBlueEyes.jpg" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; color: #0645ad; display: block; text-decoration: none;" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="http://bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.18/common/images/magnify-clip.png" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; border-width: initial; display: block; vertical-align: middle;" width="15" /></a></div>Hebridean sheep with red-eye effect, light blue</div></div></div><div class="thumb tright" style="background-color: transparent; clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1.3em; margin-left: 1.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><div class="thumbinner" style="background-color: #f9f9f9; border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; font-size: 12px; min-width: 100px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-top: 3px !important; text-align: center; width: 222px;"><a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shiro_200504-2.jpg" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="" class="thumbimage" height="216" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Shiro_200504-2.jpg/220px-Shiro_200504-2.jpg" style="background-color: white; border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-color: initial; border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" width="220" /></a><div class="thumbcaption" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; font-size: 11px; line-height: 1.4em; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-top: 3px !important; text-align: left;"><div class="magnify" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; float: right;"><a class="internal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shiro_200504-2.jpg" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; color: #0645ad; display: block; text-decoration: none;" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="http://bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.18/common/images/magnify-clip.png" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; border-width: initial; display: block; vertical-align: middle;" width="15" /></a></div><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Odd-eyed_cat" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Odd-eyed cat">Odd-eyed cat</a> displays red-eye effect on eyeshine only in its blue eye</div></div></div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Because the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Light">light</a> of the flash occurs too fast for the<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pupil" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Pupil">pupil</a> to close, much of the very bright light from the flash passes into the eye through the pupil, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reflection_(physics)" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Reflection (physics)">reflects</a> off the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundus_(eye)" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Fundus (eye)">fundus</a> at the back of the eyeball and out through the pupil. The camera records this reflected light. The main cause of the red color is the ample amount of blood in the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Choroid" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Choroid">choroid</a> which nourishes the back of the eye and is located behind the retina. The blood in the retinal circulation is far less than in the choroid, and plays virtually no role. The eye contains several photostable pigments that all absorb in the short wavelength region, and hence contribute somewhat to the red eye effect.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-0" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red-eye_effect#cite_note-0" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>1<span>]</span></a></sup> The <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lens_(anatomy)" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Lens (anatomy)">lens</a> cuts off deep blue and violet light, below 430 nm (depending on age), and macular pigment absorbs between 400 and 500 nm, but this pigment is located exclusively in the tiny <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fovea" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Fovea">fovea</a>. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melanin" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Melanin">Melanin</a>, located in the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retinal_pigment_epithelium" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Retinal pigment epithelium">retinal pigment epithelium</a> (RPE) and the choroid, shows a gradually increasing absorption towards the short wavelengths. But blood is the main determinant of the red color, because it is completely transparent at long wavelengths and abruptly starts absorbing at 600 nm. The amount of red light emerging from the pupil depends on the amount of melanin in the layers behind the retina. This amount varies strongly between individuals. Light skinned people with blue eyes have relatively low melanin in the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundus_(eye)" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Fundus (eye)">fundus</a> and thus show a much stronger red-eye effect than dark skinned people with brown eyes. The same holds for animals. The color of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iris_(anatomy)" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Iris (anatomy)">iris</a> itself is of virtually no importance for the red-eye effect. This is obvious because the red-eye effect works best when photographing dark adapted subjects, hence with fully dilated pupils. Photographs taken with infra-red light through night vision devices always show very bright pupils because, in the dark, the pupils are fully dilated and the infra-red light is not absorbed by any ocular pigment.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">The role of melanin in red-eye effect is nicely demonstrated in animals with <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heterochromia" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Heterochromia">heterochromia</a>: only the blue eye displays the effect. The effect is still more pronounced in humans and animals with <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albinism" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Albinism">albinism</a>. All forms of albinism involve abnormal production and/or deposition of melanin.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Red-eye effect is seen in photographs of children also because children's eyes have more rapid <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adaptation_(eye)" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Adaptation (eye)">dark adaption</a>: in low light a child's pupils enlarge sooner, and an enlarged pupil accentuates the red-eye effect.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">In a photograph of a child's face, red-eye in one eye but not the other may be a sign of the cancer <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retinoblastoma" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Retinoblastoma">retinoblastoma</a><sup class="Template-Fact" style="line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources from October 2011">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>.</div><h2 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; color: black; font-size: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.6em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Red-eye_effect&action=edit&section=2" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Similar effects">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Similar_effects">Similar effects</span></h2><div class="thumb tright" style="background-color: transparent; clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1.3em; margin-left: 1.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><div class="thumbinner" style="background-color: #f9f9f9; border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; font-size: 12px; min-width: 100px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-top: 3px !important; text-align: center; width: 222px;"><a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:SpottedEagleOwl2501MGRedEye.jpg" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="" class="thumbimage" height="330" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/SpottedEagleOwl2501MGRedEye.jpg/220px-SpottedEagleOwl2501MGRedEye.jpg" style="background-color: white; border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-color: initial; border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" width="220" /></a><div class="thumbcaption" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; font-size: 11px; line-height: 1.4em; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-top: 3px !important; text-align: left;"><div class="magnify" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; float: right;"><a class="internal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:SpottedEagleOwl2501MGRedEye.jpg" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; color: #0645ad; display: block; text-decoration: none;" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="http://bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.18/common/images/magnify-clip.png" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; border-width: initial; display: block; vertical-align: middle;" width="15" /></a></div><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spotted_Eagle-owl" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Spotted Eagle-owl">Spotted Eagle-owl</a> displays red-eye effect only on the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eye" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Eye">eye</a> facing the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camera" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Camera">camera</a>'s<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ring_flash" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Ring flash">ring flash</a></div></div></div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Similar effects, some related to red-eye effect, are of several kinds:</div><ul style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-image: url(data:image/png; list-style-type: square; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 1.5em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.3em; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">In many flash photographs, even those without perceptible red-eye effect, many animals' pupils display <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tapetum_lucidum" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Tapetum lucidum">eyeshine</a>. Although eyeshine is an unrelated effect, animals with blue eyes may display the red-eye effect in addition to eyeshine.</li>
</ul><ul style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-image: url(data:image/png; list-style-type: square; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 1.5em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.3em; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Numerous diseases of the eye cause a "white-eye effect" instead of the expected red-eye effect (see <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leukocoria" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Leukocoria">Leukocoria</a>).<sup class="Template-Fact" style="line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources from June 2008">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li>
</ul><ul style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-image: url(data:image/png; list-style-type: square; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 1.5em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.3em; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">A related effect, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_reflex" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Red reflex">red reflex</a>, is seen in <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundoscopy" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Fundoscopy">fundoscopy</a>; unlike the red-eye effect, it is not a photographic effect.</li>
</ul><ul style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-image: url(data:image/png; list-style-type: square; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 1.5em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.3em; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">In photographs recorded with <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrared" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Infrared">infrared</a>-sensitive passive (non-IR emitting) equipment, the eyes (not only the pupils) usually appear very bright. This is due not to reflection, but to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiation" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Radiation">radiation</a> of core body heat in the form of infrared light (see <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Night_vision" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Night vision">Night vision</a>).</li>
</ul><h2 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; color: black; font-size: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.6em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Red-eye_effect&action=edit&section=3" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Photography techniques for prevention and removal">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Photography_techniques_for_prevention_and_removal">Photography techniques for prevention and removal</span></h2><div class="thumb tright" style="background-color: transparent; clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1.3em; margin-left: 1.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><div class="thumbinner" style="background-color: #f9f9f9; border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; font-size: 12px; min-width: 100px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-top: 3px !important; text-align: center; width: 222px;"><a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:EOS100FlashWithRedEyeLight.JPG" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="" class="thumbimage" height="165" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/EOS100FlashWithRedEyeLight.JPG/220px-EOS100FlashWithRedEyeLight.JPG" style="background-color: white; border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-color: initial; border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" width="220" /></a><div class="thumbcaption" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; font-size: 11px; line-height: 1.4em; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-top: 3px !important; text-align: left;"><div class="magnify" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; float: right;"><a class="internal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:EOS100FlashWithRedEyeLight.JPG" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; color: #0645ad; display: block; text-decoration: none;" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="http://bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.18/common/images/magnify-clip.png" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; border-width: initial; display: block; vertical-align: middle;" width="15" /></a></div><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canon_EOS_100" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Canon EOS 100">Canon EOS 100</a> with bright light to contract pupils</div></div></div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">The red-eye effect can be prevented in a number of ways.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-1" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red-eye_effect#cite_note-1" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>2<span>]</span></a></sup></div><ol style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-image: none; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 3.2em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.3em; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Using bounce flash in which the flash head is aimed at a nearby pale colored surface such as a ceiling or wall or at a specialist photographic reflector. This both changes the direction of the flash and ensures that only diffused flash light enters the eye.</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Placing the flash away from the camera's optical axis ensures that the light from the flash hits the eye at an oblique angle. The light enters the eye in a direction away from the optical axis of the camera and is refocused by the eye lens back along the same axis. Because of this the retina will not be visible to the camera and the eyes will appear natural.</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Taking pictures without flash by increasing the ambient lighting, opening the lens aperture, using a faster film or detector, or reducing the shutter speed.</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Using the red-eye reduction capabilities built into many modern cameras. These precede the main flash with a series of short, low-power flashes, or a continuous piercing bright light triggering the pupil to contract. (This should not be confused with the <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autofocus_assist_beam" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Autofocus assist beam">autofocus assist beam</a>, which uses a series of flashes for focus instead.)</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Having the subject look away from the camera lens.</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">The red-eye effect is not seen in subjects wearing contact lenses with UV filtering</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Increase the lighting in the room so that the subject's pupils are more constricted.</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Some computer digital image editors have the ability to lessen the red eye by desaturating the red color.</li>
</ol><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">If direct flash must be used, a good rule of thumb is to separate the flash from the lens by 1/20 of the distance of the camera to the subject. For example, if the subject is 2 metres (6 feet) away, the flash head should be at least 10 cm (4 inches) away from the lens.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Professional photographers prefer to use ambient light or indirect flash as the red-eye reduction system does not always prevent red eyes, for example if people look away during the pre-flash. In addition, people do not look natural with small pupils, and direct lighting from close to the camera lens is considered to produce unflattering photographs.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Various <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bitmap_graphics_editor" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Bitmap graphics editor">graphics editing software</a> packages have functions to remove red eyes from digital photographs. Some have automated this process, and can apply it to many photos at once. Red-eye removal is also built into many popular consumer programs, such as <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photoshop" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Photoshop">Adobe Photoshop</a>,<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPhoto" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="IPhoto">Apple iPhoto</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corel_Photo-Paint" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Corel Photo-Paint">Corel Photo-Paint</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GIMP" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="GIMP">GIMP</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Picasa" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Picasa">Google Picasa</a>, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_Live_Photo_Gallery" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Windows Live Photo Gallery">Microsoft Windows Live Photo Gallery</a>.</div>John Michael Acehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16447213303343013873noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1050591295065099165.post-86410647728458098032011-10-28T20:15:00.001-07:002011-10-28T20:15:16.920-07:00Film Speed<span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px;"></span><br />
<div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;"><b>Film speed</b> is the measure of a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photographic_film" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Photographic film">photographic film's</a> sensitivity to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Light">light</a>, determined by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sensitometry" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Sensitometry">sensitometry</a> and measured on <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#Film" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">various numerical scales</a>, the most recent being the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#ISO" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">ISO</a> system.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">A closely related ISO system is used to measure the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#Digital" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">sensitivity of digital imaging systems</a>.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Relatively insensitive film, with a correspondingly lower speed index requires more <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exposure_(photography)" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Exposure (photography)">exposure</a> to light to produce the same image density as a more sensitive film, and is thus commonly termed a <i>slow film</i>. Highly sensitive films are correspondingly termed <i>fast films</i>.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">In both digital and film photography, the reduction of exposure corresponding to use of higher sensitivities generally leads to reduced image quality (via coarser <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_grain" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Film grain">film grain</a> or higher <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image_noise" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Image noise">image noise</a> of other types). In short, the higher the sensitivity, the grainier the image will be.</div><table class="toc" id="toc" style="background-color: #f9f9f9; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; font-size: 12px; padding-bottom: 5px; padding-left: 5px; padding-right: 5px; padding-top: 5px;"><tbody>
<tr><td><div id="toctitle" style="direction: ltr; text-align: center;"><h2 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; border-width: initial; color: black; display: inline; font-size: 12px; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0.6em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; width: auto;">Contents</h2> <span class="toctoggle" style="font-size: 11px;"> [<a class="internal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#" id="togglelink" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">hide</a>] </span></div><ul style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-image: none; list-style-type: none; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.3em; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left;"><li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#Film_speed_systems" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Film speed systems</span></a><ul style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-image: none; list-style-type: none; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 2em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left;"><li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-2" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#Historical_systems" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Historical systems</span></a><ul style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-image: none; list-style-type: none; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 2em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left;"><li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-3" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#Warnerke" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">1.1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Warnerke</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-4" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#Hurter_.26_Driffield" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">1.1.2</span> <span class="toctext">Hurter & Driffield</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-5" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#Scheiner" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">1.1.3</span> <span class="toctext">Scheiner</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-6" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#DIN" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">1.1.4</span> <span class="toctext">DIN</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-7" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#BSI" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">1.1.5</span> <span class="toctext">BSI</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-8" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#Weston" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">1.1.6</span> <span class="toctext">Weston</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-9" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#General_Electric" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">1.1.7</span> <span class="toctext">General Electric</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-10" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#ASA" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">1.1.8</span> <span class="toctext">ASA</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-11" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#GOST" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">1.1.9</span> <span class="toctext">GOST</span></a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-12" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#Current_system:_ISO" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">1.2</span> <span class="toctext">Current system: ISO</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-13" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#Conversion_between_current_scales" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">1.3</span> <span class="toctext">Conversion between current scales</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-14" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#Determining_film_speed" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">1.4</span> <span class="toctext">Determining film speed</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-15" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#Applying_film_speed" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">1.5</span> <span class="toctext">Applying film speed</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-16" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#Exposure_index" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">1.6</span> <span class="toctext">Exposure index</span></a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-17" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#Reciprocity" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Reciprocity</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-18" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#Film_sensitivity_and_grain" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Film sensitivity and grain</span></a><ul style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-image: none; list-style-type: none; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 2em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left;"><li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-19" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#Use_of_grain" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">3.1</span> <span class="toctext">Use of grain</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-20" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#Marketing_anomalies" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">3.2</span> <span class="toctext">Marketing anomalies</span></a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-21" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#Digital_camera_ISO_speed_and_exposure_index" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Digital camera ISO speed and exposure index</span></a><ul style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-image: none; list-style-type: none; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 2em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left;"><li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-22" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#The_ISO_12232:2006_standard" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">4.1</span> <span class="toctext">The ISO 12232:2006 standard</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-23" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#Measurements_and_calculations" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">4.2</span> <span class="toctext">Measurements and calculations</span></a><ul style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-image: none; list-style-type: none; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 2em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left;"><li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-24" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#Saturation-based_speed" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">4.2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Saturation-based speed</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-25" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#Noise-based_speed" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">4.2.2</span> <span class="toctext">Noise-based speed</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-26" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#Standard_output_sensitivity_.28SOS.29" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">4.2.3</span> <span class="toctext">Standard output sensitivity (SOS)</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-27" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#Discussion" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">4.2.4</span> <span class="toctext">Discussion</span></a></li>
</ul></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-28" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#See_also" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-29" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#References" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-30" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#External_links" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">External links</span></a></li>
</ul></td></tr>
</tbody></table><h2 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; color: black; font-size: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.6em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Film_speed&action=edit&section=1" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Film speed systems">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Film_speed_systems"><span id="Film"></span><span id="Film_speed"></span>Film speed systems</span></h2><h3 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; color: black; font-size: 17px; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Film_speed&action=edit&section=2" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Historical systems">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Historical_systems">Historical systems</span></h3><h4 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; color: black; font-size: 15px; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Film_speed&action=edit&section=3" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Warnerke">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Warnerke"><span id="Chapman_Jones"></span><span id="Henry_Chapman_Jones"></span><span id="Jones"></span>Warnerke</span></h4><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">The first known practical <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sensitometry" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Sensitometry">sensitometer</a>, which allowed measurements of the speed of photographic materials, was invented by the Polish engineer <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leon_Warnerke" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Leon Warnerke">Leon Warnerke</a><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-DIN_1934_DIN-4512_Introduction_0-0" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#cite_note-DIN_1934_DIN-4512_Introduction-0" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>1<span>]</span></a></sup> - pseudonym of <span lang="pl" xml:lang="pl"><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W%C5%82adys%C5%82aw_Ma%C5%82achowski" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Władysław Małachowski">Władysław Małachowski</a></span> (1837–1900) - in 1880, among the achievements for which he was awarded the <a class="new" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Progress_Medal_(RPS)&action=edit&redlink=1" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #ba0000; text-decoration: none;" title="Progress Medal (RPS) (page does not exist)">Progress Medal</a> of the <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photographic_Society_of_Great_Britain" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Photographic Society of Great Britain">Photographic Society of Great Britain</a> in 1882.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-RPS_2011_Progress_Medal_1882_1-0" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#cite_note-RPS_2011_Progress_Medal_1882-1" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>2<span>]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Jones_1911_Cyclopaedia_2-0" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#cite_note-Jones_1911_Cyclopaedia-2" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>3<span>]</span></a></sup> It was commercialized since 1881.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">The Warnerke Standard Sensitometer consisted of a frame holding an opaque screen with an array of typically 25 numbered, gradually pigmented squares brought into contact with the photographic plate during a timed test exposure under a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phosphorescence" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Phosphorescence">phosphorescent</a> tablet excited before by the light of a burning <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnesium" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Magnesium">Magnesium</a> ribbon.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Jones_1911_Cyclopaedia_2-1" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#cite_note-Jones_1911_Cyclopaedia-2" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>3<span>]</span></a></sup> The speed of the emulsion was then expressed in 'degrees' Warnerke (sometimes seen as Warn. or °W.) corresponding with the last number visible on the exposed plate after development and fixation. Each number represented an increase of 1/3 in speed, typical plate speeds were between 10° and 25° Warnerke at the time.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">His system saw some success but proved to be unreliable<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-DIN_1934_DIN-4512_Introduction_0-1" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#cite_note-DIN_1934_DIN-4512_Introduction-0" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>1<span>]</span></a></sup> due to its spectral sensitivity to light, the fading intensity of the light emitted by the phosphorescent tablet after its excitation as well as high built-tolerances.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Jones_1911_Cyclopaedia_2-2" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#cite_note-Jones_1911_Cyclopaedia-2" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>3<span>]</span></a></sup></div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">The concept, however, was later built upon in 1900 by <a class="new" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Henry_Chapman_Jones&action=edit&redlink=1" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #ba0000; text-decoration: none;" title="Henry Chapman Jones (page does not exist)">Henry Chapman Jones</a> (1855–1932) in the development of his plate tester and modified speed system.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Jones_1911_Cyclopaedia_2-3" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#cite_note-Jones_1911_Cyclopaedia-2" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>3<span>]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Hasluck_1905_Jones_3-0" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#cite_note-Hasluck_1905_Jones-3" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>4<span>]</span></a></sup></div><h4 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; color: black; font-size: 15px; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Film_speed&action=edit&section=4" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Hurter & Driffield">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Hurter_.26_Driffield"><span id="H.26D"></span>Hurter & Driffield</span></h4><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Another early practical system for measuring the sensitivity of an emulsion was that of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hurter_and_Driffield" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Hurter and Driffield">Hurter and Driffield</a> (H&D), originally described in 1890, by the Swiss-born <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdinand_Hurter" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Ferdinand Hurter">Ferdinand Hurter</a> (1844–1898) and British <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vero_Charles_Driffield" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Vero Charles Driffield">Vero Charles Driffield</a> (1848–1915).</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">In their system, speed numbers were inversely proportional to the exposure required. For example, an emulsion rated at 250 H&D would require ten times the exposure of an emulsion rated at 2500 H&D.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Sowerby_4-0" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#cite_note-Sowerby-4" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>5<span>]</span></a></sup></div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">The methods to determine the sensitivity were later modified in 1925 (in regard to the light source used) and in 1928 (regarding light source, developer and proportional factor)—this later variant was sometimes called "H&D 10"). The H&D system was officially<sup class="Template-Fact" style="line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources from August 2011">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> accepted as a standard in the former <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_Union" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> from 1928 until September 1951, when it was superseded by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#GOST" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">GOST</a> 2817-50.</div><h4 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; color: black; font-size: 15px; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Film_speed&action=edit&section=5" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Scheiner">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Scheiner"><span id="Scheinergrade"></span><span id="Sch"></span><span id="Sch."></span>Scheiner</span></h4><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">The <i>Scheinergrade</i> (Sch.) system was devised by the German astronomer <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julius_Scheiner" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Julius Scheiner">Julius Scheiner</a> (1858–1913) in 1894 originally as a method of comparing the speeds of plates used for astronomical photography.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Scheiner's system rated the speed of a plate by the least exposure to produce a visible darkening upon development. Speed was expressed in degrees Scheiner, originally ranging from 1° Sch. to 20° Sch., where an increment of 19° Sch. corresponded to a hundredfold increase in sensitivity, which meant that an increment of 3° Sch. came close to a doubling of sensitivity.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Sowerby_4-1" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#cite_note-Sowerby-4" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>5<span>]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Riat_2006_5-0" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#cite_note-Riat_2006-5" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>6<span>]</span></a></sup></div><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><img alt="\sqrt[19]{100}^3 = 2.06914...\approx 2" class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/6/b/8/6b8c9c6983a576aa9e4382a84913029b.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" /></dd></dl><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">The system was later extended to cover larger ranges and some of its practical shortcomings were addressed by the Austrian scientist <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Josef_Maria_Eder" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Josef Maria Eder">Josef Maria Eder</a> (1855–1944)<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-DIN_1934_DIN-4512_Introduction_0-2" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#cite_note-DIN_1934_DIN-4512_Introduction-0" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>1<span>]</span></a></sup> and Flemish-born botanist <a class="new" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Walter_Hecht&action=edit&redlink=1" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #ba0000; text-decoration: none;" title="Walter Hecht (page does not exist)">Walter Hecht</a> (<a class="extiw" href="http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_Hecht" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #3366bb; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-decoration: none;" title="de:Walter Hecht">de</a>) (1896–1960), (who, in 1919/1920, jointly developed their <i>Eder–Hecht neutral wedge sensitometer</i> measuring emulsion speeds in <i>Eder–Hecht</i> grades). Still, it remained difficult for manufactures to reliably determine film speeds, often only by comparing with competing products,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-DIN_1934_DIN-4512_Introduction_0-3" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#cite_note-DIN_1934_DIN-4512_Introduction-0" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>1<span>]</span></a></sup> so that an increasing number of modified semi-Scheiner-based systems started to spread, which no longer followed Scheiner's original procedures and thereby defeated the idea of comparability.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-DIN_1934_DIN-4512_Introduction_0-4" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#cite_note-DIN_1934_DIN-4512_Introduction-0" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>1<span>]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Sheppard_1932_Dresden-Congress_6-0" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#cite_note-Sheppard_1932_Dresden-Congress-6" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>7<span>]</span></a></sup></div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Scheiner's system was eventually abandoned in Germany, when the standardized <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#DIN" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">DIN</a> system was introduced in 1934. In various forms, it continued to be in widespread use in other countries for some time.</div><h4 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; color: black; font-size: 15px; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Film_speed&action=edit&section=6" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: DIN">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="DIN"><span id="DIN_4512"></span>DIN</span></h4><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">The DIN system, officially DIN standard 4512 by <i><span lang="de" xml:lang="de"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deutsches_Institut_f%C3%BCr_Normung" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Deutsches Institut für Normung">Deutsches Institut für Normung</a></span></i> (but still named <i><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Deutscher Normenausschuß</span></i> (DNA) at this time), was published in January 1934. It grew out of drafts for a standardized method of sensitometry put forward by <i><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Deutscher Normenausschuß für Phototechnik</span></i><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Sheppard_1932_Dresden-Congress_6-1" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#cite_note-Sheppard_1932_Dresden-Congress-6" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>7<span>]</span></a></sup> as proposed by the committee for sensitometry of the <i><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Deutsche Gesellschaft für photographische Forschung</span></i><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Biltz_1933_DIN-Grade_7-0" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#cite_note-Biltz_1933_DIN-Grade-7" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>8<span>]</span></a></sup> since 1930<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Heisenberg_1930_Tagung_8-0" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#cite_note-Heisenberg_1930_Tagung-8" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>9<span>]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Voss_2002_Luther_9-0" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#cite_note-Voss_2002_Luther-9" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>10<span>]</span></a></sup> and presented by <a class="new" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Robert_Thomas_Dietrich_Luther&action=edit&redlink=1" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #ba0000; text-decoration: none;" title="Robert Thomas Dietrich Luther (page does not exist)">Robert Luther</a> (<a class="extiw" href="http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Thomas_Dietrich_Luther" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #3366bb; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-decoration: none;" title="de:Robert Thomas Dietrich Luther">de</a>)<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Voss_2002_Luther_9-1" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#cite_note-Voss_2002_Luther-9" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>10<span>]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Buckland_2008_Kinamo_10-0" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#cite_note-Buckland_2008_Kinamo-10" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>11<span>]</span></a></sup> (1868–1945) and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emanuel_Goldberg" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Emanuel Goldberg">Emanuel Goldberg</a><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Buckland_2008_Kinamo_10-1" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#cite_note-Buckland_2008_Kinamo-10" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>11<span>]</span></a></sup> (1881–1970) at the influential VIII. <a class="new" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=International_Congress_of_Photography&action=edit&redlink=1" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #ba0000; text-decoration: none;" title="International Congress of Photography (page does not exist)">International Congress of Photography</a> (German: <i><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Internationaler Kongreß für wissenschaftliche und angewandte Photographie</span></i>) held in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dresden" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Dresden">Dresden</a> from August 3 to 8, 1931.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Sheppard_1932_Dresden-Congress_6-2" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#cite_note-Sheppard_1932_Dresden-Congress-6" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>7<span>]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Eggert_1932_Kongress-Bericht_11-0" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#cite_note-Eggert_1932_Kongress-Bericht-11" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>12<span>]</span></a></sup></div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">The DIN system was inspired by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#Scheiner" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">Scheiner</a>'s system,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-DIN_1934_DIN-4512_Introduction_0-5" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#cite_note-DIN_1934_DIN-4512_Introduction-0" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>1<span>]</span></a></sup> but the sensitivities were represented as the base 10 logarithm of the sensitivity multiplied by 10, similar to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decibel" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Decibel">decibels</a>. Thus an increase of 20° (and not 19°) represented a hundredfold increase in sensitivity, and a difference of 3° was much closer to the base 10 logarithm of 2 (0.30103…):<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Riat_2006_5-1" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#cite_note-Riat_2006-5" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>6<span>]</span></a></sup></div><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><img alt="\underset{10}\log{(2)} = 0.30103... \approx 3/10" class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/4/f/c/4fc011bda12a1f7aa25dc38f3171fada.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" /></dd></dl><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">As in the Scheiner system, speeds were expressed in 'degrees'. Originally the sensitivity was written as a fraction with 'tenths' (for example "18/10° DIN"),<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-12" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#cite_note-12" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>13<span>]</span></a></sup> where the resultant value 1.8 represented the relative base 10 logarithm of the speed. 'Tenths' were later abandoned with DIN 4512:1957-11, and the example above would be written as "18° DIN".<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Sowerby_4-2" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#cite_note-Sowerby-4" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>5<span>]</span></a></sup> The degree symbol was finally dropped with DIN 4512:1961-10. This revision also saw significant changes in the definition of film speeds in order to accommodate then-recent changes in the American <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#ASA" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">ASA</a>PH2.5-1960 standard, so that film speeds of black-and-white negative film effectively would become doubled, that is, a film previously marked as "18° DIN" would now be labeled as "21 DIN" without emulsion changes.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Originally only meant for black-and-white negative film, the system was later extended and regrouped into nine parts, including DIN 4512-1:1971-04 for black-and-white negative film, DIN 4512-4:1977-06 for color reversal film and DIN 4512-5:1977-10 for color negative film.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">On an international level the German DIN 4512 system has been effectively superseded in the 1980s by ISO 6:1974,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-ISO_6_13-0" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#cite_note-ISO_6-13" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>14<span>]</span></a></sup> ISO 2240:1982,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-http_14-0" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#cite_note-http-14" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>15<span>]</span></a></sup>and ISO 5800:1979<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-iso.org_15-0" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#cite_note-iso.org-15" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>16<span>]</span></a></sup> where the same sensitivity is written in linear and logarithmic form as "ISO 100/21°" (now again with degree symbol). These <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#ISO" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">ISO</a> standards were subsequently adopted by DIN as well. Finally, the latest DIN 4512 revisions were replaced by corresponding ISO standards, DIN 4512-1:1993-05 by DIN ISO 6:1996-02 in September 2000, DIN 4512-4:1985-08 by DIN ISO 2240:1998-06 and DIN 4512-5:1990-11 by DIN ISO 5800:1998-06 both in July 2002.</div><h4 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; color: black; font-size: 15px; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Film_speed&action=edit&section=7" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: BSI">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="BSI"><span id="BS"></span>BSI</span></h4><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">The film speed scale recommended by the <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Standards_Institution" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="British Standards Institution">British Standards Institution</a> (BSI) was almost identical to the DIN system except that the BS number was 10 degrees greater than the DIN number.<sup class="Template-Fact" style="line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources from August 2011">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></div><h4 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; color: black; font-size: 15px; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Film_speed&action=edit&section=8" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Weston">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Weston"><span id="Weston_film_speed_ratings"></span>Weston</span></h4><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Before the advent of the ASA system, the system of <i>Weston film speed ratings</i> was introduced by <a class="new" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Edward_Faraday_Weston&action=edit&redlink=1" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #ba0000; text-decoration: none;" title="Edward Faraday Weston (page does not exist)">Edward Faraday Weston</a> (1878–1971) and his father Dr. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Weston_(chemist)" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edward Weston (chemist)">Edward Weston</a> (1850–1936), a British-born electrical engineer, industrialist and founder of the US-based <a class="new" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Weston_Electrical_Instrument_Corporation&action=edit&redlink=1" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #ba0000; text-decoration: none;" title="Weston Electrical Instrument Corporation (page does not exist)">Weston Electrical Instrument Corporation</a>,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Mulhern_1990_Letter_16-0" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#cite_note-Mulhern_1990_Letter-16" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>17<span>]</span></a></sup> with the Weston model 617, one of the earliest photo-electric exposure meters, in August 1932. The meter and film rating system were invented by <a class="new" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=William_Nelson_Goodwin,_Jr.&action=edit&redlink=1" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #ba0000; text-decoration: none;" title="William Nelson Goodwin, Jr. (page does not exist)">William Nelson Goodwin, Jr.</a>,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Goodwin_1938_emulsion_ratings_17-0" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#cite_note-Goodwin_1938_emulsion_ratings-17" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>18<span>]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Roseborough_1996_PHSC-PC-22-3_18-0" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#cite_note-Roseborough_1996_PHSC-PC-22-3-18" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>19<span>]</span></a></sup> who worked for them<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Tipper_Weston_19-0" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#cite_note-Tipper_Weston-19" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>20<span>]</span></a></sup> and later received a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Howard_N._Potts_Medal" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Howard N. Potts Medal">Howard N. Potts Medal</a>for his contributions to engineering.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">The company tested and frequently published speed ratings for most films of the time. Weston film speed ratings could since be found on most Weston exposure meters and were sometimes referred to by film manufactures and third-parties<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Hefley_1951_micrographs_20-0" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#cite_note-Hefley_1951_micrographs-20" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>21<span>]</span></a></sup> in their exposure guidelines. Since manufactures were sometimes creative about film speeds, the company went as far as to warn users about unauthorized uses of their film ratings in their "Weston film ratings" booklets.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Weston_1946_Ratings_21-0" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#cite_note-Weston_1946_Ratings-21" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>22<span>]</span></a></sup></div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">The Weston Cadet (model 852 introduced in 1949), Direct Reading (model 853 introduced 1954) and Master III (models 737 and S141.3 introduced in 1956) were the first in their line of exposure meters to switch and utilize the meanwhile established <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#ASA" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">ASA</a> scale instead. Other models used the original Weston scale up until ca. 1955. The company continued to publish Weston film ratings after 1955,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Sangamo_1959_Weston-Ratings_22-0" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#cite_note-Sangamo_1959_Weston-Ratings-22" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>23<span>]</span></a></sup> but while their recommended values often differed slightly from the ASA film speeds found on film boxes, these newer Weston values were based on the ASA system and had to be converted for use with older Weston meters by subtracting 1/3 exposure stop as per Weston's recommendation.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Sangamo_1959_Weston-Ratings_22-1" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#cite_note-Sangamo_1959_Weston-Ratings-22" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>23<span>]</span></a></sup> Vice versa, "old" Weston film speed ratings could be converted into "new" Westons and the ASA scale by adding the same amount, that is, a film rating of 100 Weston (up to 1955) corresponded with 125 ASA (as per ASA PH2.5-1954 and before). This conversion was not necessary on Weston meters manufactured and Weston film ratings published since 1956 due to their inherent use of the ASA system; however the changes of the ASA PH2.5-1960 revision may be taken into account when comparing with newer ASA or ISO values.</div><h4 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; color: black; font-size: 15px; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Film_speed&action=edit&section=9" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: General Electric">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="General_Electric"><span id="GE"></span><span id="General_Electric_film_values"></span>General Electric</span></h4><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Prior to the establishment of the ASA scale<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-General-Electric_194x_GES-2810_Manual_GW-68_23-0" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#cite_note-General-Electric_194x_GES-2810_Manual_GW-68-23" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>24<span>]</span></a></sup> and similar to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#Weston" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">Weston film speed ratings</a> another manufacturer of photo-electric exposure meters, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Electric" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="General Electric">General Electric</a>, developed its own rating system of so called <i>General Electric film values</i> (often abbreviated as <i>G-E</i> or <i>GE</i>) around 1937.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Film speed values for use with their meters were published in regularly updated <i>General Electric Film Values</i><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-General-Electric_1947_GED-744_Film-Values_24-0" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#cite_note-General-Electric_1947_GED-744_Film-Values-24" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>25<span>]</span></a></sup> leaflets and in the <i>General Electric Photo Data Book</i>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-General-Electric_1942_GET-I717_25-0" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#cite_note-General-Electric_1942_GET-I717-25" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>26<span>]</span></a></sup></div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">General Electric switched to use the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#ASA" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">ASA</a> scale in 1946. Meters manufactured since February 1946 were equipped with the ASA scale (labeled "Exposure Index") already. For some of the older meters with scales in "Film Speed" or "Film Value" (e.g. models DW-48, DW-49 as well as early DW-58 and GW-68 variants), replaceable hoods with ASA scales were available from the manufacturer.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-General-Electric_1947_GED-744_Film-Values_24-1" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#cite_note-General-Electric_1947_GED-744_Film-Values-24" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>25<span>]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-General-Electric_1946_Ad_Hood_26-0" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#cite_note-General-Electric_1946_Ad_Hood-26" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>27<span>]</span></a></sup> The company continued to publish recommended film values after that date, however, they were now aligned to the ASA scale.</div><h4 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; color: black; font-size: 15px; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Film_speed&action=edit&section=10" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: ASA">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="ASA"><span id="APEX"></span><span id="ASA_PH2.5"></span><span id="ASA_Z38.2.1"></span>ASA</span></h4><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Based on earlier research work by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loyd_A._Jones" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Loyd A. Jones">Loyd Ancile Jones</a> (1884–1954) of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kodak" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Kodak">Kodak</a> and inspired by the systems of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#Weston" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">Weston film speed ratings</a><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Sangamo_1959_Weston-Ratings_22-2" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#cite_note-Sangamo_1959_Weston-Ratings-22" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>23<span>]</span></a></sup>and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#GE" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">General Electric film values</a>,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-General-Electric_1947_GED-744_Film-Values_24-2" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#cite_note-General-Electric_1947_GED-744_Film-Values-24" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>25<span>]</span></a></sup> the <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Standards_Association" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="American Standards Association">American Standards Association</a> (now named <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ANSI" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="ANSI">ANSI</a>) defined a new method to determine and specify film speeds of black-and-white negative films in 1943. ASA Z38.2.1-1943 was revised in 1946 and 1947 before the standard grew into ASA PH2.5-1954. Originally, ASA values were frequently referred to as <i>American standard speed numbers</i> or <i>ASA exposure-index numbers</i>. (See also: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#EI" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">Exposure Index</a> (EI).)</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">The ASA scale was arithmetic, that is, a film denoted as having a film speed of 200 ASA was twice as fast as a film with 100 ASA.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">The ASA standard underwent a major revision in 1960 with ASA PH2.5-1960, when the method to determine film speed was refined and previously applied safety factors against under-exposure were abandoned, effectively doubling the nominal speed of many black-and-white negative films. For example, an <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilford_HP" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Ilford HP">Ilford HP3</a> that has been rated at 200 ASA before 1960 was labeled 400 ASA afterwards without any change to the emulsion. Similar changes were applied to the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#DIN" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">DIN</a> system with DIN 4512:1961-10 and the BS system with BS 1380:1963 in the following years.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">In addition to the established arithmetic speed scale, ASA PH2.5-1960 also introduced logarithmic ASA grades (100 ASA = 5° ASA), where a difference of 1° ASA represented a full exposure stop and therefore the doubling of a film speed. For some while, ASA grades were also printed on film boxes, and they saw life in the form of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/APEX_system" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="APEX system">APEX</a> speed value <i>S<sub style="line-height: 1em;">v</sub></i> (without degree symbol) as well.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">ASA PH2.5-1960 was revised as ANSI PH2.5-1979, without the logarithmic speeds, and later replaced by NAPM IT2.5-1986 of the National Association of Photographic Manufacturers, which represented the US adoption of the international standard ISO 6. The latest issue of ANSI/NAPM IT2.5 was published in 1993.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">The standard for color negative film was introduced as ASA PH2.27-1965 and saw a string of revisions in 1971, 1976, 1979 and 1981, before it finally became ANSI IT2.27-1988 prior to its withdrawal.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Color reversal film speeds were defined in ANSI PH2.21-1983, which was revised in 1989 before it became ANSI/NAPM IT2.21 in 1994, the US adoption of the ISO 2240 standard.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">On an international level, the ASA system was superseded by the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#ISO" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">ISO</a> film speed system between 1982 and 1987, however, the arithmetic ASA speed scale continued to live on as the linear speed value of the ISO system.</div><h4 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; color: black; font-size: 15px; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Film_speed&action=edit&section=11" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: GOST">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="GOST"><span id="GOST_2817"></span><span id="GOST_10691"></span>GOST</span></h4><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;"><i><span lang="ru-Latn" xml:lang="ru-Latn"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GOST" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="GOST">GOST</a></span></i> (Cyrillic: <i><span lang="ru-Cyrl" xml:lang="ru-Cyrl">ГОСТ</span></i>) was an arithmetic film speed scale defined in GOST 2817-45 and GOST 2817-50.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Gorokhovskiy_1970_Metrologiya_27-0" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#cite_note-Gorokhovskiy_1970_Metrologiya-27" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>28<span>]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-GOST_2817-50_28-0" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#cite_note-GOST_2817-50-28" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>29<span>]</span></a></sup> It was used in the former<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_Union" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> since October 1951,<sup class="Template-Fact" style="line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources from August 2011">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> replacing <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#H.26D" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">Hurter & Driffield</a> (H&D) numbers,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Gorokhovskiy_1970_Metrologiya_27-1" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#cite_note-Gorokhovskiy_1970_Metrologiya-27" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>28<span>]</span></a></sup> which had been used since 1928.<sup class="Template-Fact" style="line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources from August 2011">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">GOST 2817-50 was similar to the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#ASA" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">ASA</a> standard, having been based on a speed point at a density 0.2 above base plus fog, as opposed to the ASA's 0.1.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-29" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#cite_note-29" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>30<span>]</span></a></sup> GOST markings are only found on pre-1987 photographic equipment (film, cameras, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light_meter" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Light meter">lightmeters</a>, etc.) of Soviet Union manufacture.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-ZENIT_2011_GOST_30-0" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#cite_note-ZENIT_2011_GOST-30" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>31<span>]</span></a></sup></div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">On 1 January 1987, the GOST scale was realigned to the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#ISO" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">ISO</a> scale with GOST 10691-84,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-GOST_10691-84_31-0" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#cite_note-GOST_10691-84-31" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>32<span>]</span></a></sup></div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">This evolved into multiple parts including GOST 10691.6-88<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-GOST_10691.6-88_32-0" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#cite_note-GOST_10691.6-88-32" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>33<span>]</span></a></sup> and GOST 10691.5-88,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-GOST_10691.5-88_33-0" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#cite_note-GOST_10691.5-88-33" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>34<span>]</span></a></sup> which both became functional on 1 Januar 1991.</div><h3 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; color: black; font-size: 17px; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Film_speed&action=edit&section=12" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Current system: ISO">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Current_system:_ISO"><span id="ISO"></span><span id="ISO_6"></span><span id="ISO_2240"></span><span id="ISO_5800"></span><span id="Current_ISO_system"></span>Current system: ISO</span></h3><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">The <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#ASA" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">ASA</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#DIN" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">DIN</a> film speed standards have been combined into the ISO standards since 1974.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">The current <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_standard" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="International standard">International Standard</a> for measuring the speed of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_print_film" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Color print film">color negative film</a> is ISO 5800:2001<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-iso.org_15-1" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#cite_note-iso.org-15" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>16<span>]</span></a></sup> (first published in 1979, revised in November 1987) from the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Organization_for_Standardization" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="International Organization for Standardization">International Organization for Standardization</a> (ISO). Related standards ISO 6:1993<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-ISO_6_13-1" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#cite_note-ISO_6-13" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>14<span>]</span></a></sup> (first published in 1974) and ISO 2240:2003<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-http_14-1" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#cite_note-http-14" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>15<span>]</span></a></sup> (first published in July 1982, revised in September 1994, and corrected in October 2003) define scales for speeds of black-and-white negative film and color reversal film, respectively.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">The determination of ISO speeds <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#ISO_12232" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">with digital still-cameras</a> is described in ISO 12232:2006 (first published in August 1998, revised in April 2006, and corrected in October 2006).</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">The ISO system defines both an <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arithmetic" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Arithmetic">arithmetic</a> and a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logarithmic_scale" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Logarithmic scale">logarithmic scale</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-manual_34-0" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#cite_note-manual-34" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>35<span>]</span></a></sup> The arithmetic ISO scale corresponds to the arithmetic ASA system, where a doubling of film sensitivity is represented by a doubling of the numerical film speed value. In the logarithmic ISO scale, which corresponds to the DIN scale, adding 3° to the numerical value constitutes a doubling of sensitivity. For example, a film rated ISO 200/24° is twice as sensitive as one rated ISO 100/21°.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-manual_34-1" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#cite_note-manual-34" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>35<span>]</span></a></sup></div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Commonly, the logarithmic speed is omitted; for example, "ISO 100" denotes "ISO 100/21°",<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-35" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#cite_note-35" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>36<span>]</span></a></sup> while logarithmic ISO speeds are written as "ISO 21°" as per the standard.</div><h3 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; color: black; font-size: 17px; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Film_speed&action=edit&section=13" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Conversion between current scales">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Conversion_between_current_scales"><span id="Conversion"></span>Conversion between current scales</span></h3><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Conversion from arithmetic speed <i>S</i> to logarithmic speed <i>S</i>° is given by<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-ISO_6_13-2" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#cite_note-ISO_6-13" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>14<span>]</span></a></sup></div><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><img alt="S^\circ = 10 \log S + 1" class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/e/f/a/efa245fb8cf590064f8e791477d106e5.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" /></dd></dl><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">and rounding to the nearest integer; the log is base 10. Conversion from logarithmic speed to arithmetic speed is given by<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-36" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#cite_note-36" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>37<span>]</span></a></sup></div><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><img alt="S = 10^{\left( {S^\circ - 1} \right)/10}" class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/6/0/5/605144d3102adcaa305112ca596adbcf.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" /></dd></dl><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">and rounding to the nearest standard arithmetic speed in Table 1 below.</div><table class="wikitable center" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #f9f9f9; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-collapse: collapse; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; color: black; font-size: 13px; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 1em; margin-top: 1em; text-align: center; width: 814px;"><caption style="font-weight: bold; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">Table 1. Comparison of various film speed scales</caption><tbody style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">
<tr style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><th style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: navajowhite; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#APEX" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-decoration: none;">APEX</a> <i style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">S<sub style="line-height: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">v</sub></i>(1960–)</th><th style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: navajowhite; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#ISO" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-decoration: none;">ISO</a> (1974–)<br style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" />arith./log.°</th><th style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: navajowhite; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;">Camera mfrs. (2009–)</th><th style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: navajowhite; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#ASA" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-decoration: none;">ASA</a>(1960–1987)<br style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" />arith.</th><th style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: navajowhite; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#DIN" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-decoration: none;">DIN</a>(1961–2002)<br style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" />log.</th><th style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: navajowhite; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#GOST" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-decoration: none;">GOST</a>(1951–1986)<br style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" />arith.</th><th style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: navajowhite; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;">Example of film stock<br style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" />with this nominal speed</th></tr>
<tr style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">−2</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">0.8/0°<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Leica_2002_ISO_R9_37-0" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#cite_note-Leica_2002_ISO_R9-37" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">[</span>38<span style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">]</span></a></sup></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">0.8</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">0<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Leica_1996_ISO_R8_38-0" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#cite_note-Leica_1996_ISO_R8-38" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">[</span>39<span style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">]</span></a></sup></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td></tr>
<tr style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">1/1°</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">1</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">1</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">(1)</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td></tr>
<tr style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">1.2/2°</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">1.2</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">2</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">(1)</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td></tr>
<tr style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">−1</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">1.6/3°</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">1.6</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">3</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">1.4</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td></tr>
<tr style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">2/4°</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">2</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">4</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">(2)</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td></tr>
<tr style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">2.5/5°</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">2.5</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">5</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">(2)</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td></tr>
<tr style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">0</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">3/6°</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">3</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">6</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">2.8</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td></tr>
<tr style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><b style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">4/7°</b></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><b style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">4</b></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">7</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">(4)</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td></tr>
<tr style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><b style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">5/8°</b></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><b style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">5</b></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">8</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">(4)</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td></tr>
<tr style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><b style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">1</b></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><b style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">6/9°</b></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><b style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">6</b></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">9</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">5.5</td><td align="left" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">original <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kodachrome" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-decoration: none;" title="Kodachrome">Kodachrome</a></td></tr>
<tr style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><b style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">8/10°</b></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><b style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">8</b></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">10</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">(8)</td><td align="left" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">Polaroid PolaBlue</td></tr>
<tr style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><b style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">10/11°</b></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><b style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">10</b></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">11</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">(8)</td><td align="left" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">Kodachrome 8 mm film</td></tr>
<tr style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><b style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">2</b></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><b style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">12/12°</b></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><b style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">12</b></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">12</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">11</td><td align="left" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">Gevacolor 8 mm reversal film, later Agfa Dia-Direct</td></tr>
<tr style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><b style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">16/13°</b></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><b style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">16</b></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">13</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">(16)</td><td align="left" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">Agfacolor 8 mm reversal film</td></tr>
<tr style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><b style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">20/14°</b></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><b style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">20</b></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">14</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">(16)</td><td align="left" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">Adox CMS 20</td></tr>
<tr style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><b style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">3</b></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><b style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">25/15°</b></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><b style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">25</b></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">15</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">22</td><td align="left" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">old Agfacolor, Kodachrome II and (later) Kodachrome 25, Efke 25</td></tr>
<tr style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><b style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">32/16°</b></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><b style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">32</b></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">16</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">(32)</td><td align="left" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">Kodak Panatomic-X</td></tr>
<tr style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><b style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">40/17°</b></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><b style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">40</b></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">17</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">(32)</td><td align="left" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">Kodachrome 40 (movie)</td></tr>
<tr style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><b style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">4</b></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><b style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">50/18°</b></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><b style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">50</b></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">18</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">45</td><td align="left" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">Fuji RVP (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velvia" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-decoration: none;" title="Velvia">Velvia</a>), Ilford Pan F Plus, Kodak Vision2 50D 5201 (movie), AGFA CT18, Efke 50</td></tr>
<tr style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><b style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">64/19°</b></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><b style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">64</b></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">19</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">(65)</td><td align="left" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">Kodachrome 64, Ektachrome-X</td></tr>
<tr style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><b style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">80/20°</b></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><b style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">80</b></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">20</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">(65)</td><td align="left" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">Ilford Commercial Ortho</td></tr>
<tr style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><b style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">5</b></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><b style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">100/21°</b></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><b style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">100</b></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">21</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">90</td><td align="left" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kodacolor_(still_photography)" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-decoration: none;" title="Kodacolor (still photography)">Kodacolor Gold</a>, Kodak T-Max (TMX), <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Provia" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-decoration: none;" title="Provia">Provia</a>, Efke 100</td></tr>
<tr style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><b style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">125/22°</b></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><b style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">125</b></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">22</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">(130)</td><td align="left" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilford_FP" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-decoration: none;" title="Ilford FP">Ilford FP4+</a>, Kodak Plus-X Pan</td></tr>
<tr style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><b style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">160/23°</b></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><b style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">160</b></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">23</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">(130)</td><td align="left" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fujicolor_Pro" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-decoration: none;" title="Fujicolor Pro">Fujicolor Pro 160C/S</a>, Kodak High-Speed Ektachrome,<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kodak_Portra" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-decoration: none;" title="Kodak Portra">Kodak Portra</a> 160NC and 160VC</td></tr>
<tr style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><b style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">6</b></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><b style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">200/24°</b></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><b style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">200</b></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">24</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">180</td><td align="left" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fujifilm_Superia" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-decoration: none;" title="Fujifilm Superia">Fujicolor Superia</a> 200, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_discontinued_photographic_films#Agfa_Scala_200x" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-decoration: none;" title="List of discontinued photographic films">Agfa Scala 200x</a></td></tr>
<tr style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><b style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">250/25°</b></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><b style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">250</b></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">25</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">(250)</td><td align="left" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">Tasma Foto-250</td></tr>
<tr style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><b style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">320/26°</b></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><b style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">320</b></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">26</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">(250)</td><td align="left" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">Kodak Tri-X Pan Professional (TXP)</td></tr>
<tr style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><b style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">7</b></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><b style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">400/27°</b></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><b style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">400</b></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">27</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">350</td><td align="left" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">Kodak T-Max (TMY), <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kodak_Tri-X" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-decoration: none;" title="Kodak Tri-X">Tri-X 400</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilford_HP" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-decoration: none;" title="Ilford HP">Ilford HP5+</a>, Fujifilm Superia X-tra 400</td></tr>
<tr style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><b style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">500/28°</b></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><b style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">500</b></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">28</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">(500)</td><td align="left" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">Kodak Vision3 500T 5219 (movie)</td></tr>
<tr style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><b style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">640/29°</b></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><b style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">640</b></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">29</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">(500)</td><td align="left" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">Polaroid 600</td></tr>
<tr style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><b style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">8</b></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><b style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">800/30°</b></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><b style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">800</b></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">30</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">700</td><td align="left" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fujicolor_Pro" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-decoration: none;" title="Fujicolor Pro">Fuji Pro 800Z</a></td></tr>
<tr style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><b style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">1000/31°</b></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><b style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">1000</b></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">31</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">(1000)</td><td align="left" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kodak_T-MAX" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-decoration: none;" title="Kodak T-MAX">Kodak P3200 TMAX</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilford_Delta" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-decoration: none;" title="Ilford Delta">Ilford Delta</a> 3200 <small style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">(see <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#Marketing_anomalies" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-decoration: none;">Marketing anomalies</a> below)</small></td></tr>
<tr style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><b style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">1250/32°</b></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><b style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">1250</b></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">32</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">(1000)</td><td align="left" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">Kodak Royal-X Panchromatic</td></tr>
<tr style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><b style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">9</b></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><b style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">1600/33°</b></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><b style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">1600</b></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">33</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">1400 (1440)</td><td align="left" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">Fujicolor 1600</td></tr>
<tr style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><b style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">2000/34°</b></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><b style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">2000</b></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">34</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">(2000)</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td></tr>
<tr style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><b style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">2500/35°</b></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><b style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">2500</b></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">35</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">(2000)</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td></tr>
<tr style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><b style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">10</b></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><b style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">3200/36°</b></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><b style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">3200</b></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">36</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">2800 (2880)</td><td align="left" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">Konica 3200</td></tr>
<tr style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><b style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">4000/37°</b></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">37</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">(4000)</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td></tr>
<tr style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><b style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">5000/38°</b></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">38</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">(4000)</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td></tr>
<tr style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">11</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><b style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">6400/39°</b></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">39</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">5600</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td></tr>
<tr style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><b style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">8000/40°</b><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Leica_2002_ISO_R9_37-1" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#cite_note-Leica_2002_ISO_R9-37" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">[</span>38<span style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Leica_1996_ISO_R8_38-1" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#cite_note-Leica_1996_ISO_R8-38" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">[</span>39<span style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">]</span></a></sup></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td></tr>
<tr style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><b style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">10000/41°</b><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Leica_2002_ISO_R9_37-2" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#cite_note-Leica_2002_ISO_R9-37" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">[</span>38<span style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Leica_1996_ISO_R8_38-2" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#cite_note-Leica_1996_ISO_R8-38" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">[</span>39<span style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">]</span></a></sup></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td></tr>
<tr style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">12</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">12500/42°<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Leica_2002_ISO_R9_37-3" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#cite_note-Leica_2002_ISO_R9-37" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">[</span>38<span style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">]</span></a></sup></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">12800<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Leica_1996_ISO_R8_38-3" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#cite_note-Leica_1996_ISO_R8-38" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">[</span>39<span style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Canon_1966_Booster_39-0" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#cite_note-Canon_1966_Booster-39" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">[</span>40<span style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Canon_1978_Manual_A-1_40-0" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#cite_note-Canon_1978_Manual_A-1-40" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">[</span>41<span style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Nikon_2009_ISO_D3s_41-0" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#cite_note-Nikon_2009_ISO_D3s-41" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">[</span>42<span style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Canon_2009_ISO_EOS-1D_Mk-IV_42-0" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#cite_note-Canon_2009_ISO_EOS-1D_Mk-IV-42" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">[</span>43<span style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">]</span></a></sup></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td><td align="left" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">No ISO speeds greater than 10000 have been assigned as of July 2011.</td></tr>
<tr style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">16000/43°</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td></tr>
<tr style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">20000/44°</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td></tr>
<tr style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">13</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">25000/45°</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">25600<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Nikon_2009_ISO_D3s_41-1" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#cite_note-Nikon_2009_ISO_D3s-41" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">[</span>42<span style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Canon_2009_ISO_EOS-1D_Mk-IV_42-1" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#cite_note-Canon_2009_ISO_EOS-1D_Mk-IV-42" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">[</span>43<span style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">]</span></a></sup></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td></tr>
<tr style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">32000/46°</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td></tr>
<tr style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">40000/47°</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td></tr>
<tr style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">14</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">50000/48°</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">51200<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Nikon_2009_ISO_D3s_41-2" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#cite_note-Nikon_2009_ISO_D3s-41" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">[</span>42<span style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Canon_2009_ISO_EOS-1D_Mk-IV_42-2" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#cite_note-Canon_2009_ISO_EOS-1D_Mk-IV-42" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">[</span>43<span style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">]</span></a></sup></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td></tr>
<tr style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">64000/49°</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td></tr>
<tr style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">80000/50°</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td></tr>
<tr style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">15</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">100000/51°<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Leica_2002_ISO_R9_37-4" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#cite_note-Leica_2002_ISO_R9-37" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">[</span>38<span style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">]</span></a></sup></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">102400<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Nikon_2009_ISO_D3s_41-3" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#cite_note-Nikon_2009_ISO_D3s-41" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">[</span>42<span style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Canon_2009_ISO_EOS-1D_Mk-IV_42-3" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#cite_note-Canon_2009_ISO_EOS-1D_Mk-IV-42" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">[</span>43<span style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">]</span></a></sup></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">51<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Leica_1996_ISO_R8_38-4" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#cite_note-Leica_1996_ISO_R8-38" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">[</span>39<span style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">]</span></a></sup></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td><td align="left" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">First commercial <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#Digital" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-decoration: none;">digital</a> SLR cameras with this ISO equivalent: <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikon_D3s" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-decoration: none;" title="Nikon D3s">Nikon D3s</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canon_EOS-1D_Mark_IV" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-decoration: none;" title="Canon EOS-1D Mark IV">Canon EOS-1D Mark IV</a> (2009)</td></tr>
<tr style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">125000/52°</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td></tr>
<tr style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">160000/53°</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td></tr>
<tr style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">16</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">200000/54°</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">204800<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Canon_2011_ISO_EOS-1D_X_43-0" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#cite_note-Canon_2011_ISO_EOS-1D_X-43" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">[</span>44<span style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">]</span></a></sup></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"> </td><td align="left" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">First commercial SLR camera with this ISO equivalent:<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canon_EOS-1D_X" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-decoration: none;" title="Canon EOS-1D X">Canon EOS-1D X</a> (2011)</td></tr>
</tbody></table><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Table notes:</div><ol style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-image: none; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 3.2em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.3em; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Speeds shown in bold under APEX, ISO and ASA are values actually assigned in speed standards from the respective agencies; other values are calculated extensions to assigned speeds using the same progressions as for the assigned speeds.</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">APEX <i>S<sub style="line-height: 1em;">v</sub></i> values 1 to 10 correspond with logarithmic ASA grades 1° to 10° found in ASA PH2.5-1960.</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">ASA arithmetic speeds from 4 to 5 are taken from ANSI PH2.21-1979 (Table 1, p. 8).</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">ASA arithmetic speeds from 6 to 3200 are taken from ANSI PH2.5-1979 (Table 1, p. 5) and ANSI PH2.27-1979.</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">ISO arithmetic speeds from 4 to 3200 are taken from ISO 5800:1987 (Table "ISO speed scales", p. 4).</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">ISO arithmetic speeds from 6 to 10000 are taken from ISO 12232:1998 (Table 1, p. 9).</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">ISO 12232:1998 does not specify speeds greater than 10000. However, the upper limit for <i>S</i><sub style="line-height: 1em;">noise</sub> 10000 is given as 12500, suggesting that ISO may have envisioned a progression of 12500, 25000, 50000, and 100000, similar to that from 1250 to 10000. This is consistent with ASA PH2.12-1961.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-ASA_1961_PH2-12_12500_44-0" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#cite_note-ASA_1961_PH2-12_12500-44" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>45<span>]</span></a></sup> For digital cameras, Nikon, Canon, Sony, Pentax, and Fujifilm apparently chose to express the greater speeds in an exact power-of-2 progression from the highest previously realized speed (6400) rather than rounding to an extension of the existing progression.</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Most of the modern <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/35_mm_film" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="35 mm film">35 mm film</a> SLRs support an automatic film speed range from ISO 25/15° to 5000/38° with <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DX_encoding" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="DX encoding">DX-coded films</a>, or ISO 6/9° to 6400/39° manually (without utilizing <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exposure_compensation" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Exposure compensation">exposure compensation</a>). The film speed range with support for <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Through-the-lens_metering#Through_the_lens_flash_metering" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Through-the-lens metering">TTL flash</a> is smaller, typically ISO 12/12° to 3200/36° or less.</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">The Booster<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Canon_1966_Booster_39-1" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#cite_note-Canon_1966_Booster-39" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>40<span>]</span></a></sup> accessory for the <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canon_Pellix_QL" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Canon Pellix QL">Canon Pellix QL</a> (1965) and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canon_FT_QL" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Canon FT QL">Canon FT QL</a> (1966) supported film speeds from 25 to 12800 ASA.</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">The film speed dial of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canon_A-1" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Canon A-1">Canon A-1</a> (1978) supported a speed range from 6 to 12800 ASA (but already called ISO film speeds in the manual).<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Canon_1978_Manual_A-1_40-1" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#cite_note-Canon_1978_Manual_A-1-40" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>41<span>]</span></a></sup> On this camera exposure compensation and extreme film speeds were mutually exclusive.</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">The <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leica_R8" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Leica R8">Leica R8</a> (1996) and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leica_R9" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Leica R9">R9</a> (2002) officially supported film speeds of 8000/40°, 10000/41° and 12800/42° (in the case of the R8) or 12500/42° (in the case of the R9), and utilizing its ±3 EV exposure compensation the range could be extended from ISO 0.8/0° to ISO 100000/51° in half exposure steps.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Leica_2002_ISO_R9_37-5" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#cite_note-Leica_2002_ISO_R9-37" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>38<span>]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Leica_1996_ISO_R8_38-5" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#cite_note-Leica_1996_ISO_R8-38" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>39<span>]</span></a></sup></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Digital camera manufacturers' arithmetic speeds from 12800 to 204800 are from specifications by Nikon (12800, 25600, 51200 and 102400 in 2009<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Nikon_2009_ISO_D3s_41-4" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#cite_note-Nikon_2009_ISO_D3s-41" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>42<span>]</span></a></sup>), Canon (12800, 25600, 51200 and 102400 in 2009<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Canon_2009_ISO_EOS-1D_Mk-IV_42-4" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#cite_note-Canon_2009_ISO_EOS-1D_Mk-IV-42" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>43<span>]</span></a></sup>, and 204800 in 2011<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Canon_2011_ISO_EOS-1D_X_43-1" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#cite_note-Canon_2011_ISO_EOS-1D_X-43" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>44<span>]</span></a></sup>), Sony (12800 in 2009,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Sony_2009_ISO_Alpha_DSLR-A500-A550_45-0" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#cite_note-Sony_2009_ISO_Alpha_DSLR-A500-A550-45" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>46<span>]</span></a></sup> 25600 in 2010<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Sony_2010_ISO_Alpha_DSLR-A560-A580_46-0" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#cite_note-Sony_2010_ISO_Alpha_DSLR-A560-A580-46" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>47<span>]</span></a></sup>), Pentax (12800, 25600, 51200 in 2010<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Pentax_2010_ISO_K-5_47-0" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#cite_note-Pentax_2010_ISO_K-5-47" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>48<span>]</span></a></sup>) and Fujifilm (12800 in 2011<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Fujifilm_2011_ISO_X100_48-0" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#cite_note-Fujifilm_2011_ISO_X100-48" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>49<span>]</span></a></sup>).</li>
</ol><h3 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; color: black; font-size: 17px; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Film_speed&action=edit&section=14" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Determining film speed">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Determining_film_speed">Determining film speed</span></h3><div class="thumb tright" style="background-color: transparent; clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1.3em; margin-left: 1.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><div class="thumbinner" style="background-color: #f9f9f9; border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; font-size: 12px; min-width: 100px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-top: 3px !important; text-align: center; width: 542px;"><a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:ISO6speedMethod.png" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="" class="thumbimage" height="375" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/ISO6speedMethod.png/540px-ISO6speedMethod.png" style="background-color: white; border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-color: initial; border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" width="540" /></a><div class="thumbcaption" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; font-size: 11px; line-height: 1.4em; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-top: 3px !important; text-align: left;"><div class="magnify" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; float: right;"><a class="internal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:ISO6speedMethod.png" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; color: #0645ad; display: block; text-decoration: none;" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="http://bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.18/common/images/magnify-clip.png" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; border-width: initial; display: block; vertical-align: middle;" width="15" /></a></div>ISO 6:1993 method of determining speed for black-and-white film.</div></div></div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Film speed is found from a plot of <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_density" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Optical density">optical density</a> vs. log of exposure for the film, known as the <i>D</i>–log <i>H</i> curve or <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sensitometry" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Sensitometry">Hurter–Driffield</a> curve. There typically are five regions in the curve: the base + fog, the toe, the linear region, the shoulder, and the overexposed region. For <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black-and-white" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Black-and-white">black-and-white</a><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Negative_film" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Negative film">negative film</a>, the “speed point” m is the point on the curve where density exceeds the base + fog density by 0.1 when the negative is developed so that a point n where the log of exposure is 1.3 units greater than the exposure at point m has a density 0.8 greater than the density at point m. The exposure <i>H</i><sub style="font-size: 9px; line-height: 1em;">m</sub>, in <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lux_second" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Lux second">lux-s</a>, is that for point m when the specified contrast condition is satisfied. The ISO arithmetic speed is determined from:</div><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><img alt="S = \frac {0.8} {H_\mathrm{m}}" class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/8/3/7/837f1ca4e0d30efce441117ce706a45a.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" /></dd></dl><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">This value is then rounded to the nearest standard speed in Table 1 of ISO 6:1993.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Determining speed for color negative film is similar in concept but more complex because it involves separate curves for blue, green, and red. The film is processed according to the film manufacturer’s recommendations rather than to a specified contrast. ISO speed for <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_reversal_film" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Color reversal film">color reversal film</a> is determined from the middle rather than the threshold of the curve; it again involves separate curves for blue, green, and red, and the film is processed according to the film manufacturer’s recommendations.</div><h3 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; color: black; font-size: 17px; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Film_speed&action=edit&section=15" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Applying film speed">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Applying_film_speed">Applying film speed</span></h3><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Film speed is used in the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light_meter#Exposure_equations" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Light meter">exposure equations</a> to find the appropriate exposure parameters. Four variables are available to the photographer to obtain the desired effect: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lighting" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Lighting">lighting</a>, film speed, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F-number" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="F-number">f-number</a> (aperture size), and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shutter_speed" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Shutter speed">shutter speed</a> (exposure time). The equation may be expressed as ratios, or, by taking the logarithm (base 2) of both sides, by addition, using the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/APEX_system" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="APEX system">APEX system</a>, in which every increment of 1 is a doubling of exposure; this increment is commonly known as a "stop". The <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F-number#Working_f-number" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="F-number">effective f-number</a> is proportional to the ratio between the lens <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Focal_length" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Focal length">focal length</a>and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aperture" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Aperture">aperture</a> diameter, the diameter itself being proportional to the square root of the aperture area. Thus, a lens set to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F-number" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="F-number"><span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', Candara, Georgia, Calibri, Corbel, serif; font-style: italic;">f</span>/1.4</a> allows twice as much light to strike the focal plane as a lens set to <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', Candara, Georgia, Calibri, Corbel, serif; font-style: italic;">f</span>/2. Therefore, each f-number factor of the square root of two (approximately 1.4) is also a stop, so lenses are typically marked in that progression: <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', Candara, Georgia, Calibri, Corbel, serif; font-style: italic;">f</span>/1.4, 2, 2.8, 4, 5.6, 8, 11, 16, 22, 32, etc.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">The ISO arithmetic speed has a useful property for photographers without the equipment for taking a metered light reading. Correct exposure will usually be achieved for a frontlighted scene in bright sun if the aperture of the lens is set to f/16 and the shutter speed is the reciprocal of the ISO film speed (e.g. 1/100 second for 100 ISO film). This known as the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunny_16_rule" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Sunny 16 rule">sunny 16 rule</a>.</div><h3 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; color: black; font-size: 17px; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Film_speed&action=edit&section=16" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Exposure index">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Exposure_index"><span id="EI"></span>Exposure index</span></h3><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Exposure index, or EI, refers to speed rating assigned to a particular film and shooting situation in variance to the film's actual speed. It is used to compensate for equipment calibration inaccuracies or process variables, or to achieve certain effects. The exposure index may simply be called the <i>speed setting</i>, as compared to the speed <i>rating</i>.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">For example, a photographer may rate an ISO 400 film at EI 800 and then use <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Push_processing" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Push processing">push processing</a> to obtain printable negatives in low-light conditions. The film has been exposed at EI 800.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Another example occurs where a camera's <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shutter_(photography)" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Shutter (photography)">shutter</a> is miscalibrated and consistently overexposes or underexposes the film; similarly, a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light_meter" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Light meter">light meter</a> may be inaccurate. One may adjust the EI rating accordingly in order to compensate for these defects and consistently produce correctly exposed negatives.<sup class="Template-Fact" style="line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources from April 2009">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></div><h2 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; color: black; font-size: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.6em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Film_speed&action=edit&section=17" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Reciprocity">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Reciprocity">Reciprocity</span></h2><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Upon exposure, the amount of light energy that reaches the film determines the effect upon the emulsion. If the brightness of the light is multiplied by a factor and the exposure of the film decreased by the same factor by varying the camera's <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shutter_speed" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Shutter speed">shutter speed</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aperture" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Aperture">aperture</a>, so that the energy received is the same, the film will be developed to the same density. This rule is called <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reciprocity_(photography)" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Reciprocity (photography)">reciprocity</a>. The systems for determining the sensitivity for an emulsion are possible because reciprocity holds. In practice, reciprocity works reasonably well for normal photographic films for the range of exposures between 1/1000 second to 1/2 second. However, this relationship breaks down outside these limits, a phenomenon known as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reciprocity_(photography)#Reciprocity_failure" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Reciprocity (photography)">reciprocity failure</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-49" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#cite_note-49" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>50<span>]</span></a></sup></div><h2 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; color: black; font-size: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.6em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Film_speed&action=edit&section=18" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Film sensitivity and grain">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Film_sensitivity_and_grain">Film sensitivity and grain</span></h2><div class="rellink relarticle mainarticle" style="font-style: italic; margin-bottom: 0.5em; padding-left: 2em;">Main article: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_grain" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Film grain">Film grain</a></div><div class="thumb tright" style="background-color: transparent; clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1.3em; margin-left: 1.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><div class="thumbinner" style="background-color: #f9f9f9; border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; font-size: 12px; min-width: 100px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-top: 3px !important; text-align: center; width: 222px;"><a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Korn_HP4_ISO1600.jpg" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="" class="thumbimage" height="220" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Korn_HP4_ISO1600.jpg/220px-Korn_HP4_ISO1600.jpg" style="background-color: white; border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-color: initial; border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" width="220" /></a><div class="thumbcaption" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; font-size: 11px; line-height: 1.4em; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-top: 3px !important; text-align: left;"><div class="magnify" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; float: right;"><a class="internal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Korn_HP4_ISO1600.jpg" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; color: #0645ad; display: block; text-decoration: none;" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="http://bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.18/common/images/magnify-clip.png" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; border-width: initial; display: block; vertical-align: middle;" width="15" /></a></div>Grainy high speed B/W film negative</div></div></div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Film speed is roughly related to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_grain" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Film grain">granularity</a>, the size of the grains of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silver_halide" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Silver halide">silver halide</a> in the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emulsion" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Emulsion">emulsion</a>, since larger grains give film a greater sensitivity to light. Fine-grain stock, such as portrait film or those used for the intermediate stages of copying <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Original_camera_negative" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Original camera negative">original camera negatives</a>, is "slow", meaning that the amount of light used to expose it must be high or the shutter must be open longer. Fast films, used for shooting in poor light or for shooting fast motion, produce a grainier image. Each grain of silver halide develops in an all-or-nothing way into dark silver or nothing. Thus, each grain is a threshold detector; in aggregate, their effect can be thought of as a noisy nonlinear analog light detector.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;"><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastman_Kodak" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Eastman Kodak">Kodak</a> has defined a "Print Grain Index" (PGI) to characterize film grain (color negative films only), based on perceptual <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Just-noticeable_difference" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Just-noticeable difference">just-noticeable difference</a> of graininess in prints. They also define "granularity", a measurement of grain using an RMS measurement of density fluctuations in uniformly exposed film, measured with a microdensitometer with 48 micrometre aperture.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-50" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#cite_note-50" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>51<span>]</span></a></sup>Granularity varies with exposure — underexposed film looks grainier than overexposed film.</div><h3 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; color: black; font-size: 17px; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Film_speed&action=edit&section=19" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Use of grain">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Use_of_grain">Use of grain</span></h3><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">In advertising, music videos, and some drama, mismatches of grain, color cast, and so forth between shots are often deliberate and added in<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post-production" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Post-production">post-production</a>.<sup class="Template-Fact" style="line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources from April 2009">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></div><h3 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; color: black; font-size: 17px; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Film_speed&action=edit&section=20" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Marketing anomalies">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Marketing_anomalies">Marketing anomalies</span></h3><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Some high-speed black-and-white films, such as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilford_Delta" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Ilford Delta">Ilford Delta</a> 3200 and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kodak_T-MAX" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Kodak T-MAX">Kodak T-MAX</a> P3200, are marketed with film speeds in excess of their true ISO speed as determined using the ISO testing method. For example, the Ilford product is actually an ISO 1000 film, according to its data sheet. The manufacturers do not indicate that the 3200 number is an ISO rating on their packaging.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-51" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#cite_note-51" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>52<span>]</span></a></sup> Kodak and Fuji also marketed E6 films designed for pushing (hence the "P" prefix), such as Ektachrome P800/1600 and Fujichrome P1600, both with a base speed of ISO 400.</div><h2 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; color: black; font-size: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.6em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Film_speed&action=edit&section=21" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Digital camera ISO speed and exposure index">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Digital_camera_ISO_speed_and_exposure_index"><span id="Digital"></span><span id="ISO_speed"></span>Digital camera ISO speed and exposure index</span></h2><table class="metadata plainlinks ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #fbfbfb; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(242, 133, 0); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 10px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; font-size: 13px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; margin-top: 0px;"><tbody>
<tr><td class="mbox-image" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 2px; text-align: center;"><div style="width: 52px;"><img alt="" height="39" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" width="50" /></div></td><td class="mbox-text" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; padding-bottom: 0.25em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.25em; width: 566px;">This section <b>needs additional <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#Inline_citations" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; color: #0645ad; padding-bottom: 0px !important; padding-left: 0px !important; padding-right: 0px !important; padding-top: 0px !important; text-decoration: none;" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">citations</a> for <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; color: #0645ad; padding-bottom: 0px !important; padding-left: 0px !important; padding-right: 0px !important; padding-top: 0px !important; text-decoration: none;" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>. Please help <a class="external text" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Film_speed&action=edit" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: url(data:image/png; background-origin: initial; background-position: 0% 0%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #3366bb; padding-bottom: 0px !important; padding-left: 0px !important; padding-right: 13px; padding-top: 0px !important; text-decoration: none;">improve this article</a> by adding citations to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Identifying_reliable_sources" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; color: #0645ad; padding-bottom: 0px !important; padding-left: 0px !important; padding-right: 0px !important; padding-top: 0px !important; text-decoration: none;" title="Wikipedia:Identifying reliable sources">reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Citation_needed" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; color: #0645ad; padding-bottom: 0px !important; padding-left: 0px !important; padding-right: 0px !important; padding-top: 0px !important; text-decoration: none;" title="Template:Citation needed">challenged</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; color: #0645ad; padding-bottom: 0px !important; padding-left: 0px !important; padding-right: 0px !important; padding-top: 0px !important; text-decoration: none;" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>. <small><i>(April 2009)</i></small></td></tr>
</tbody></table><div class="thumb tright" style="background-color: transparent; clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1.3em; margin-left: 1.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><div class="thumbinner" style="background-color: #f9f9f9; border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; font-size: 12px; min-width: 100px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-top: 3px !important; text-align: center; width: 302px;"><a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:CCD_Image_sensor.jpg" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="" class="thumbimage" height="235" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/CCD_Image_sensor.jpg/300px-CCD_Image_sensor.jpg" style="background-color: white; border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-color: initial; border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; font-size: 11px; line-height: 1.4em; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-top: 3px !important; text-align: left;"><div class="magnify" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; float: right;"><a class="internal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:CCD_Image_sensor.jpg" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; color: #0645ad; display: block; text-decoration: none;" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="http://bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.18/common/images/magnify-clip.png" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; border-width: initial; display: block; vertical-align: middle;" width="15" /></a></div>A <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charge-coupled_device" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Charge-coupled device">CCD</a> image sensor, 2/3 inch size.</div></div></div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">In <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_camera" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Digital camera">digital camera systems</a>, an arbitrary relationship between exposure and sensor data values can be achieved by setting the <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Signal_gain" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Signal gain">signal gain</a> of the sensor. The relationship between the sensor data values and the lightness of the finished image is also arbitrary, depending on the parameters chosen for the interpretation of the sensor data into an image <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_space" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Color space">color space</a> such as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SRGB" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="SRGB">sRGB</a>.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">For digital photo cameras ("digital still cameras"), an <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#EI" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">exposure index</a> (EI) rating—commonly called <i>ISO</i> setting—is specified by the manufacturer such that the sRGB image files produced by the camera will have a lightness similar to what would be obtained with film of the same EI rating at the same exposure. The usual design is that the camera's parameters for interpreting the sensor data values into sRGB values are fixed, and a number of different EI choices are accommodated by varying the sensor's signal gain in the analog realm, prior to conversion to digital. Some camera designs provide at least some EI choices by adjusting the sensor's signal gain in the digital realm. A few camera designs also provide EI adjustment through a choice of lightness parameters for the interpretation of sensor data values into sRGB; this variation allows different tradeoffs between the range of highlights that can be captured and the amount of noise introduced into the shadow areas of the photo.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Digital cameras have far surpassed film in terms of sensitivity to light, with <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#ISO" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">ISO</a> equivalent speeds of up to 204800, a number that is unfathomable in the realm of conventional film photography. Faster processors, as well as advances in software noise reduction techniques allow this type of processing to be executed the moment the photo is captured, allowing photographers to store images that have a higher level of refinement and would have been prohibitively time consuming to process with earlier generations of digital camera hardware.</div><h3 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; color: black; font-size: 17px; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Film_speed&action=edit&section=22" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: The ISO 12232:2006 standard">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="The_ISO_12232:2006_standard"><span id="ISO_12232"></span>The ISO 12232:2006 standard</span></h3><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">The ISO standard ISO 12232:2006<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-iso12232_52-0" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#cite_note-iso12232-52" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>53<span>]</span></a></sup> gives digital still camera manufacturers a choice of five different techniques for determining the exposure index rating at each sensitivity setting provided by a particular camera model. Three of the techniques in ISO 12232:2006 are carried over from the 1998 version of the standard, while two new techniques allowing for measurement of JPEG output files are introduced from <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camera_%26_Imaging_Products_Association" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Camera & Imaging Products Association">CIPA</a> DC-004.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-53" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#cite_note-53" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>54<span>]</span></a></sup> Depending on the technique selected, the exposure index rating can depend on the sensor sensitivity, the sensor noise, and the appearance of the resulting image. The standard specifies the measurement of light sensitivity of the entire digital camera system and not of individual components such as digital sensors, although Kodak has reported<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-54" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#cite_note-54" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>55<span>]</span></a></sup> using a variation to characterize the sensitivity of two of their sensors in 2001.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">The <i>Recommended Exposure Index</i> (REI) technique, new in the 2006 version of the standard, allows the manufacturer to specify a camera model’s <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#EI" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">EI</a> choices arbitrarily. The choices are based solely on the manufacturer’s opinion of what EI values produce well-exposed <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SRGB" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="SRGB">sRGB</a>images at the various sensor sensitivity settings. This is the only technique available under the standard for output formats that are not in the sRGB color space. This is also the only technique available under the standard when <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metering_mode#Multi-zone_metering" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Metering mode">multi-zone metering</a> (also called <i>pattern</i> metering) is used.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">The <i>Standard Output Sensitivity</i> (SOS) technique, also new in the 2006 version of the standard, effectively specifies that the average level in the sRGB image must be 18% gray plus or minus 1/3 stop when the exposure is controlled by an automatic exposure control system calibrated per <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light_Meter" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Light Meter">ISO 2721</a> and set to the EI with no <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exposure_compensation" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Exposure compensation">exposure compensation</a>. Because the output level is measured in the sRGB output from the camera, it is only applicable to sRGB <span style="white-space: nowrap;">images—typically</span> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JPEG" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="JPEG">JPEG</a>—and not to output files in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raw_image_format" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Raw image format">raw image format</a>. It is not applicable when multi-zone metering is used.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">The CIPA DC-004 standard requires that Japanese manufacturers of digital still cameras use either the REI or SOS techniques, and DC-008<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-55" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#cite_note-55" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>56<span>]</span></a></sup> updates the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exchangeable_image_file_format" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Exchangeable image file format">Exif</a> specification to differentiate between these values. Consequently, the three EI techniques carried over from ISO 12232:1998 are not widely used in recent camera models (approximately 2007 and later). As those earlier techniques did not allow for measurement from images produced with lossy compression, they cannot be used at all on cameras that produce images only in JPEG format.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">The <i>saturation-based</i> technique is closely related to the SOS technique, with the sRGB output level being measured at 100% white rather than 18% gray. The saturation-based value is effectively 0.704 times the SOS value.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-56" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#cite_note-56" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>57<span>]</span></a></sup> Because the output level is measured in the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SRGB" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="SRGB">sRGB</a>output from the camera, it is only applicable to sRGB images—typically <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tagged_Image_File_Format" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Tagged Image File Format">TIFF</a>—and not to output files in raw image format. It is not applicable when multi-zone metering is used.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">The two <i>noise-based</i> techniques have rarely been used for consumer digital still cameras. These techniques specify the highest EI that can be used while still providing either an “excellent” picture or a “usable” picture depending on the technique chosen.</div><h3 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; color: black; font-size: 17px; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Film_speed&action=edit&section=23" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Measurements and calculations">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Measurements_and_calculations">Measurements and calculations</span></h3><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">ISO speed ratings of a digital camera are based on the properties of the sensor and the image processing done in the camera, and are expressed in terms of the luminous exposure <i>H</i> (in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lux" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Lux">lux</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Second">seconds</a>) arriving at the sensor. For a typical camera lens with an effective <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Focal_length" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Focal length">focal length</a><i>f</i> that is much smaller than the distance between the camera and the photographed scene, <i>H</i> is given by</div><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><img alt="H = \frac{q L t}{N^2}," class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/3/5/6/356a1f849f00eccd19be117dabea1107.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" /></dd></dl><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">where <i>L</i> is the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luminance" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Luminance">luminance</a> of the scene (in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Candela" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Candela">candela</a> per <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metre" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Metre">m</a>²), <i>t</i> is the exposure time (in seconds), <i>N</i> is the aperture f-number, and</div><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><img alt="q = \frac{\pi}{4} T\, v(\theta)\, \cos^4\theta" class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/9/9/f/99f93df06acb348810a8f460048eeb0a.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" /></dd></dl><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">is a factor depending on the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmittance" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Transmittance">transmittance</a> <i>T</i> of the lens, the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vignetting" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Vignetting">vignetting</a> factor <i>v</i>(<i>θ</i>), and the angle <i>θ</i> relative to the axis of the lens. A typical value is <i>q</i> = 0.65, based on <i>θ</i> = 10°, <i>T</i> = 0.9, and <i>v</i> = 0.98.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-57" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#cite_note-57" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>58<span>]</span></a></sup></div><h4 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; color: black; font-size: 15px; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Film_speed&action=edit&section=24" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Saturation-based speed">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Saturation-based_speed">Saturation-based speed</span></h4><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">The <i>saturation-based speed</i> is defined as</div><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><img alt="S_{\mathrm{sat}} = \frac{78}{H_{\mathrm{sat}}}," class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/d/e/0/de0d576a87c52a2bda180aacfbccffd6.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" /></dd></dl><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">where <span class="texhtml" dir="ltr" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;"><i>H</i><sub style="line-height: 1em;">sat</sub></span> is the maximum possible exposure that does not lead to a clipped or bloomed camera output. Typically, the lower limit of the saturation speed is determined by the sensor itself, but with the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gain" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Gain">gain</a> of the amplifier between the sensor and the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analog-to-digital_converter" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Analog-to-digital converter">analog-to-digital converter</a>, the saturation speed can be increased. The factor 78 is chosen such that exposure settings based on a standard <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light_meter" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Light meter">light meter</a> and an 18-percent reflective surface will result in an image with a grey level of 18%/√2 = 12.7% of saturation. The factor √2 indicates that there is half a stop of headroom to deal with <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Specular_reflection" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Specular reflection">specular reflections</a> that would appear brighter than a 100% reflecting white surface.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-iso12232_52-1" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#cite_note-iso12232-52" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>53<span>]</span></a></sup></div><h4 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; color: black; font-size: 15px; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Film_speed&action=edit&section=25" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Noise-based speed">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Noise-based_speed">Noise-based speed</span></h4><div class="rellink relarticle mainarticle" style="font-style: italic; margin-bottom: 0.5em; padding-left: 2em;">Main article: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Signal_to_noise_ratio_(imaging)" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Signal to noise ratio (imaging)">Signal to noise ratio (imaging)</a></div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">The <i>noise-based speed</i> is defined as the exposure that will lead to a given <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Signal-to-noise_ratio" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Signal-to-noise ratio">signal-to-noise ratio</a> on individual <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pixel" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Pixel">pixels</a>. Two ratios are used, the 40:1 ("excellent image quality") and the 10:1 ("acceptable image quality") ratio. These ratios have been subjectively determined based on a resolution of 70 pixels per cm (180 DPI) when viewed at 25 cm (10 inch) distance. The signal-to-noise ratio is defined as the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_deviation" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Standard deviation">standard deviation</a> of a weighted average of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luminance" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Luminance">luminance</a> (overall brightness) and color of individual pixels. The noise-based speed is mostly determined by the properties of the sensor and somewhat affected by the noise in the electronic gain and AD converter.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-iso12232_52-2" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#cite_note-iso12232-52" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>53<span>]</span></a></sup></div><h4 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; color: black; font-size: 15px; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Film_speed&action=edit&section=26" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Standard output sensitivity (SOS)">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Standard_output_sensitivity_.28SOS.29"><span id="SOS"></span>Standard output sensitivity (SOS)</span></h4><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">In addition to the above speed ratings, the standard also defines the <i>standard output sensitivity</i> (SOS), how the exposure is related to the digital pixel values in the output image. It is defined as</div><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><img alt="S_{\mathrm{sos}} = \frac{10}{H_{\mathrm{sos}}}," class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/7/c/8/7c8b71d387b195ba6be307c2f24ef847.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" /></dd></dl><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">where <span class="texhtml" dir="ltr" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;"><i>H</i><sub style="line-height: 1em;">sos</sub></span> is the exposure that will lead to values of 118 in 8-bit pixels, which is 18 percent of the saturation value in images encoded as<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SRGB" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="SRGB">sRGB</a> or with <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamma_correction" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Gamma correction">gamma</a> = 2.2.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-iso12232_52-3" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#cite_note-iso12232-52" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>53<span>]</span></a></sup></div><h4 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; color: black; font-size: 15px; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Film_speed&action=edit&section=27" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Discussion">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Discussion">Discussion</span></h4><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">The standard specifies how speed ratings should be reported by the camera. If the noise-based speed (40:1) is <i>higher</i> than the saturation-based speed, the noise-based speed should be reported, rounded <i>downwards</i> to a standard value (e.g. 200, 250, 320, or 400). The rationale is that exposure according to the lower saturation-based speed would not result in a visibly better image. In addition, an exposure latitude can be specified, ranging from the saturation-based speed to the 10:1 noise-based speed. If the noise-based speed (40:1) is <i>lower</i> than the saturation-based speed, or undefined because of high noise, the saturation-based speed is specified, rounded upwards to a standard value, because using the noise-based speed would lead to overexposed images. The camera may also report the SOS-based speed (explicitly as being an SOS speed), rounded to the nearest standard speed rating.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-iso12232_52-4" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#cite_note-iso12232-52" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>53<span>]</span></a></sup></div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">For example, a camera sensor may have the following properties: <span class="texhtml" dir="ltr" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;"><i>S</i><sub style="line-height: 1em;">40:1</sub> = 107</span>, <span class="texhtml" dir="ltr" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;"><i>S</i><sub style="line-height: 1em;">10:1</sub> = 1688</span>, and <span class="texhtml" dir="ltr" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;"><i>S</i><sub style="line-height: 1em;">sat</sub> = 49</span>. According to the standard, the camera should report its sensitivity as</div><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><i>ISO 100 (daylight)</i></dd><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><i>ISO speed latitude 50–1600</i></dd><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><i>ISO 100 (SOS, daylight)</i>.</dd></dl><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">The SOS rating could be user controlled. For a different camera with a noisier sensor, the properties might be <span class="texhtml" dir="ltr" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;"><i>S</i><sub style="line-height: 1em;">40:1</sub> = 40</span>, <span class="texhtml" dir="ltr" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;"><i>S</i><sub style="line-height: 1em;">10:1</sub> = 800</span>, and<span class="texhtml" dir="ltr" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;"><i>S</i><sub style="line-height: 1em;">sat</sub> = 200</span>. In this case, the camera should report</div><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><i>ISO 200 (daylight)</i>,</dd></dl><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">as well as a user-adjustable SOS value. In all cases, the camera should indicate for the white balance setting for which the speed rating applies, such as daylight or tungsten (<a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incandescent_light" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Incandescent light">incandescent light</a>).<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-iso12232_52-5" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed#cite_note-iso12232-52" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>53<span>]</span></a></sup></div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Despite these detailed standard definitions, cameras typically do not clearly indicate whether the user "ISO" setting refers to the noise-based speed, saturation-based speed, or the specified output sensitivity, or even some made-up number for marketing purposes. Because the 1998 version of ISO 12232 did not permit measurement of camera output that had lossy compression, it was not possible to correctly apply any of those measurements to cameras that did not produce <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SRGB" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="SRGB">sRGB</a> files in an uncompressed format such as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tagged_Image_File_Format" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Tagged Image File Format">TIFF</a>. Following the publication of CIPA DC-004 in 2006, Japanese manufacturers of digital still cameras are required to specify whether a sensitivity rating is REI or SOS.<sup class="Template-Fact" style="line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources from April 2009">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">As should be clear from the above, a greater SOS setting for a given sensor comes with some loss of image quality, just like with analog film. However, this loss is visible as image noise rather than <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_grain" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Film grain">grain</a>. Current (January 2010) APS and 35mm sized digital <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image_sensors" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Image sensors">image sensors</a>, both CMOS and CCD based, do not produce significant noise until about <i>ISO 1600</i>.<sup class="Template-Fact" style="line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources from January 2010">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></div>John Michael Acehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16447213303343013873noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1050591295065099165.post-83916856116271605232011-10-28T20:11:00.001-07:002011-10-28T20:11:06.813-07:00Exposure Value<span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px;"></span><br />
<div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">In <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photography" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Photography">photography</a>, <b>exposure value</b> (<b>EV</b>) denotes all combinations of a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camera" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Camera">camera</a>'s <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shutter_speed" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Shutter speed">shutter speed</a> and relative <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aperture" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Aperture">aperture</a> that give the same <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exposure_(photography)" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Exposure (photography)">exposure</a>. In an attempt to simplify choosing among combinations of equivalent camera settings, the concept was developed by the German shutter manufacturer <a class="new" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Friedrich_Deckel&action=edit&redlink=1" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #ba0000; text-decoration: none;" title="Friedrich Deckel (page does not exist)">Friedrich Deckel</a> (<a class="extiw" href="http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich_Deckel" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #3366bb; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-decoration: none;" title="de:Friedrich Deckel">de</a>) in the 1950s (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exposure_value#CITEREFRay2000" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">Ray 2000</a>, 318). Exposure value also is used to indicate an interval on the photographic exposure scale, with 1 EV corresponding to a standard power-of-2 exposure step, commonly referred to as a <b>stop</b>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-0" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exposure_value#cite_note-0" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>1<span>]</span></a></sup></div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Exposure value was originally indicated by the quantity symbol <span class="texhtml" dir="ltr" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;"><i>E</i><sub style="line-height: 1em;"><i>v</i></sub></span>; this symbol continues to be used in <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO_standard" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="ISO standard">ISO standards</a>, but the <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acronym" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Acronym">acronym</a> EV is <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photographers%27_abbreviations" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Photographers' abbreviations">more common elsewhere</a>.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Although all camera settings with the same exposure value nominally give the same exposure, they do not necessarily give the same picture. The exposure time (“<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shutter_speed" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Shutter speed">shutter speed</a>”) determines the amount of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motion_blur" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Motion blur">motion blur</a>, as illustrated by the two images at the right, and the relative aperture determines the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_of_field" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Depth of field">depth of field</a>. The light sensitive medium may exhibit <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reciprocity_failure" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Reciprocity failure">reciprocity failure</a>, which is a change of light sensitivity dependent on the intensity.</div><table class="toc" id="toc" style="background-color: #f9f9f9; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; font-size: 12px; padding-bottom: 5px; padding-left: 5px; padding-right: 5px; padding-top: 5px;"><tbody>
<tr><td><div id="toctitle" style="direction: ltr; text-align: center;"><h2 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; border-width: initial; color: black; display: inline; font-size: 12px; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0.6em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; width: auto;">Contents</h2> <span class="toctoggle" style="font-size: 11px;"> [<a class="internal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exposure_value#" id="togglelink" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">hide</a>] </span></div><ul style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-image: none; list-style-type: none; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.3em; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left;"><li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exposure_value#Formal_definition" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Formal definition</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exposure_value#Camera_settings_vs._photometric_exposure" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Camera settings vs. photometric exposure</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-3" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exposure_value#EV_as_an_indicator_of_camera_settings" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">EV as an indicator of camera settings</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-4" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exposure_value#Tabulated_exposure_values" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Tabulated exposure values</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-5" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exposure_value#Setting_EV_on_a_camera" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">Setting EV on a camera</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-6" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exposure_value#Exposure_compensation_in_EV" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">Exposure compensation in EV</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-7" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exposure_value#Meter_indication_in_EV" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">Meter indication in EV</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-8" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exposure_value#Relationship_of_EV_to_lighting_conditions" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">8</span> <span class="toctext">Relationship of EV to lighting conditions</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-9" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exposure_value#EV_and_APEX" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">9</span> <span class="toctext">EV and APEX</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-10" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exposure_value#EV_as_a_measure_of_luminance_and_illuminance" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">10</span> <span class="toctext">EV as a measure of luminance and illuminance</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-11" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exposure_value#Notes" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">11</span> <span class="toctext">Notes</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-12" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exposure_value#See_also" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">12</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-13" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exposure_value#References" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">13</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-14" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exposure_value#Further_reading" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">14</span> <span class="toctext">Further reading</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-15" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exposure_value#External_links" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">15</span> <span class="toctext">External links</span></a></li>
</ul></td></tr>
</tbody></table><h2 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; color: black; font-size: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.6em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Exposure_value&action=edit&section=1" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Formal definition">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Formal_definition">Formal definition</span></h2><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Exposure value is a base-2 <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logarithm" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Logarithm">logarithmic</a> scale defined by (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exposure_value#CITEREFRay2000" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">Ray 2000</a>, 318)</div><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><img alt="\mathrm {EV} = \log_2 {\frac {N^2} {t} } \,," class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/3/6/7/367d07c30fbf0be40e354b3ba4a6bbb2.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" /></dd></dl><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">where</div><ul style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-image: url(data:image/png; list-style-type: square; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 1.5em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.3em; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i>N</i> is the relative <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aperture" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Aperture">aperture</a> (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F-number" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="F-number">f-number</a>)</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i>t</i> is the exposure time (“<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shutter_speed" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Shutter speed">shutter speed</a>”) in seconds<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-no_units_1-0" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exposure_value#cite_note-no_units-1" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>2<span>]</span></a></sup></li>
</ul><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">EV 0 corresponds to an exposure time of 1 <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Second">s</a> and a relative aperture of <var>f</var>/1.0. If the EV is known, it can be used to select combinations of exposure time and <var>f</var>-number, as shown in Table 1.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Each increment of 1 in exposure value corresponds to a change of one “step” (or, more commonly, one “stop”) in exposure, i.e., half as much exposure, either by halving the exposure time or halving the aperture area, or a combination of such changes. Greater exposure values are appropriate for photography in more brightly lit situations, or for higher <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Film speed">ISO speeds</a>.</div><h2 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; color: black; font-size: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.6em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Exposure_value&action=edit&section=2" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Camera settings vs. photometric exposure">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Camera_settings_vs._photometric_exposure">Camera settings vs. photometric exposure</span></h2><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">“Exposure value” is somewhat of a misnomer, because it indicates combinations of camera settings rather than the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photometry_(optics)" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Photometry (optics)">photometric</a> quantity of luminous exposure <i>H</i><sub style="line-height: 1em;">v</sub> (aka photometric exposure), which is given by (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exposure_value#CITEREFRay2000" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">Ray 2000</a>, 310)</div><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><img alt="H_\mathrm{v} = E_\mathrm{v} \cdot t \,," class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/3/5/d/35d4fa91ed0677666d666b1ede33cb5b.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" /></dd></dl><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">where</div><ul style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-image: url(data:image/png; list-style-type: square; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 1.5em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.3em; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i>H</i><sub style="line-height: 1em;">v</sub> is the <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photometric_exposure" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Photometric exposure">photometric</a> / <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luminous_exposure" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Luminous exposure">luminous exposure</a></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i>E</i><sub style="line-height: 1em;">v</sub> is the image-plane <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illuminance" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Illuminance">illuminance</a></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i>t</i> is the exposure time</li>
</ul><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">The illuminance <i>E</i><sub style="line-height: 1em;">v</sub> is controlled by the <var>f</var>-number but also depends on the scene <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luminance" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Luminance">luminance</a> <i>L</i><sub style="line-height: 1em;">v</sub>. To avoid confusion, some authors (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exposure_value#CITEREFRay2000" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">Ray 2000</a>, 310) have used <b>camera exposure</b> to refer to combinations of camera settings. The 1964 ASA standard for automatic exposure controls for cameras, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exposure_value#CITEREFASA_PH2.15-1964" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">ASA PH2.15-1964</a>, took the same approach, and also used the more descriptive term <b>camera exposure settings</b>.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Common practice among photographers is nonetheless to use “exposure” to refer to camera settings as well as to photometric exposure.</div><h2 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; color: black; font-size: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.6em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Exposure_value&action=edit&section=3" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: EV as an indicator of camera settings">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="EV_as_an_indicator_of_camera_settings">EV as an indicator of camera settings</span></h2><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><table class="wikitable" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #f9f9f9; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-collapse: collapse; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; color: black; font-size: 13px; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 1em; margin-top: 1em; text-align: right;"><caption style="font-weight: bold;">Table 1. Exposure times, in seconds or minutes (m), for various exposure values and <var>f</var>-numbers</caption><tbody>
<tr><th rowspan="2" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em; text-align: center;">EV</th><th colspan="13" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><var>f</var>-number</th></tr>
<tr><th style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;">1.0</th><th style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;">1.4</th><th style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;">2.0</th><th style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;">2.8</th><th style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;">4.0</th><th style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;">5.6</th><th style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;">8.0</th><th style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;">11</th><th style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;">16</th><th style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;">22</th><th style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;">32</th><th style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;">45</th><th style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;">64</th></tr>
<tr><th style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em; text-align: right;">−6</th><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">60</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">2 m</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">4 m</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">8 m</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">16 m</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">32 m</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">64 m</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">128 m</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">256 m</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">512 m</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1024 m</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">2048 m</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">4096 m</td></tr>
<tr><th style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em; text-align: right;">−5</th><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">30</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">60</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">2 m</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">4 m</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">8 m</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">16 m</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">32 m</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">64 m</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">128 m</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">256 m</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">512 m</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1024 m</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">2048 m</td></tr>
<tr><th style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em; text-align: right;">−4</th><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">15</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">30</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">60</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">2 m</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">4 m</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">8 m</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">16 m</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">32 m</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">64 m</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">128 m</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">256 m</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">512 m</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1024 m</td></tr>
<tr><th style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em; text-align: right;">−3</th><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">8</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">15</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">30</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">60</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">2 m</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">4 m</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">8 m</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">16 m</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">32 m</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">64 m</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">128 m</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">256 m</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">512 m</td></tr>
<tr><th style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em; text-align: right;">−2</th><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">4</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">8</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">15</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">30</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">60</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">2 m</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">4 m</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">8 m</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">16 m</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">32 m</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">64 m</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">128 m</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">256 m</td></tr>
<tr><th style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em; text-align: right;">−1</th><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">2</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">4</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">8</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">15</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">30</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">60</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">2 m</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">4 m</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">8 m</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">16 m</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">32 m</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">64 m</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">128 m</td></tr>
<tr><th style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em; text-align: right;">0</th><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">2</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">4</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">8</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">15</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">30</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">60</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">2 m</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">4 m</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">8 m</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">16 m</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">32 m</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">64 m</td></tr>
<tr><th style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em; text-align: right;">1</th><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/2</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">2</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">4</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">8</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">15</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">30</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">60</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">2 m</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">4 m</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">8 m</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">16 m</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">32 m</td></tr>
<tr><th style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em; text-align: right;">2</th><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/4</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/2</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">2</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">4</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">8</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">15</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">30</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">60</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">2 m</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">4 m</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">8 m</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">16 m</td></tr>
<tr><th style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em; text-align: right;">3</th><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/8</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/4</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/2</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">2</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">4</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">8</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">15</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">30</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">60</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">2 m</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">4 m</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">8 m</td></tr>
<tr><th style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em; text-align: right;">4</th><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/15</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/8</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/4</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/2</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">2</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">4</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">8</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">15</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">30</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">60</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">2 m</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">4 m</td></tr>
<tr><th style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em; text-align: right;">5</th><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/30</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/15</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/8</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/4</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/2</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">2</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">4</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">8</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">15</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">30</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">60</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">2 m</td></tr>
<tr><th style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em; text-align: right;">6</th><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/60</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/30</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/15</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/8</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/4</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/2</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">2</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">4</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">8</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">15</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">30</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">60</td></tr>
<tr><th style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em; text-align: right;">7</th><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/125</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/60</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/30</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/15</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/8</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/4</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/2</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">2</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">4</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">8</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">15</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">30</td></tr>
<tr><th style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em; text-align: right;">8</th><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/250</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/125</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/60</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/30</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/15</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/8</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/4</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/2</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">2</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">4</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">8</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">15</td></tr>
<tr><th style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em; text-align: right;">9</th><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/500</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/250</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/125</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/60</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/30</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/15</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/8</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/4</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/2</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">2</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">4</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">8</td></tr>
<tr><th style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em; text-align: right;">10</th><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/1000</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/500</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/250</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/125</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/60</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/30</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/15</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/8</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/4</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/2</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">2</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">4</td></tr>
<tr><th style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em; text-align: right;">11</th><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/2000</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/1000</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/500</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/250</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/125</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/60</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/30</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/15</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/8</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/4</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/2</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">2</td></tr>
<tr><th style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em; text-align: right;">12</th><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/4000</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/2000</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/1000</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/500</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/250</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/125</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/60</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/30</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/15</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/8</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/4</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/2</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1</td></tr>
<tr><th style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em; text-align: right;">13</th><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/8000</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/4000</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/2000</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/1000</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/500</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/250</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/125</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/60</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/30</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/15</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/8</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/4</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/2</td></tr>
<tr><th style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em; text-align: right;">14</th><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/8000</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/4000</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/2000</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/1000</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/500</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/250</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/125</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/60</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/30</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/15</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/8</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/4</td></tr>
<tr><th style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em; text-align: right;">15</th><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/8000</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/4000</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/2000</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/1000</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/500</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/250</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/125</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/60</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/30</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/15</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/8</td></tr>
<tr><th style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em; text-align: right;">16</th><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/8000</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/4000</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/2000</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/1000</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/500</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/250</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/125</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/60</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/30</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/15</td></tr>
<tr><th style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em; text-align: right;">17</th><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/8000</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/4000</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/2000</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/1000</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/500</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/250</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/125</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/60</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/30</td></tr>
<tr><th style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em; text-align: right;">18</th><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/8000</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/4000</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/2000</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/1000</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/500</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/250</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/125</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/60</td></tr>
<tr><th style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em; text-align: right;">19</th><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/8000</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/4000</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/2000</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/1000</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/500</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/250</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/125</td></tr>
<tr><th style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em; text-align: right;">20</th><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/8000</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/4000</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/2000</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/1000</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/500</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/250</td></tr>
<tr><th style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em; text-align: right;">21</th><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/8000</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/4000</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/2000</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/1000</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">1/500</td></tr>
<tr><th rowspan="2" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em; text-align: center;">EV</th><th style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;">1.0</th><th style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;">1.4</th><th style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;">2.0</th><th style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;">2.8</th><th style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;">4.0</th><th style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;">5.6</th><th style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;">8.0</th><th style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;">11</th><th style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;">16</th><th style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;">22</th><th style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;">32</th><th style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;">45</th><th style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;">64</th></tr>
<tr><th colspan="13" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><var>f</var>-number</th></tr>
</tbody></table></dd></dl><h2 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; color: black; font-size: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.6em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Exposure_value&action=edit&section=4" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Tabulated exposure values">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Tabulated_exposure_values">Tabulated exposure values</span></h2><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">An exposure meter may not always be available, and using a meter to determine exposure for some scenes with unusual lighting distribution may be difficult. However, natural light, as well as many scenes with artificial lighting, is predictable, so that exposure often can be determined with reasonable accuracy from tabulated values.</div><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><b>Table 2. Exposure values (ISO 100 speed) for various lighting conditions</b><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-2" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exposure_value#cite_note-2" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>3<span>]</span></a></sup></dd></dl><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><table class="wikitable" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #f9f9f9; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-collapse: collapse; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; color: black; font-size: 13px; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 1em; margin-top: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><th style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;">Lighting Condition</th><th style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;">EV<sub style="font-size: 9px; line-height: 1em;">100</sub></th></tr>
<tr><th colspan="2" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;">Daylight</th></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">Light sand or snow in full or slightly hazy sunlight (distinct shadows)<sup style="line-height: 1em;">a</sup></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em; text-align: center;">16</td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">Typical scene in full or slightly hazy sunlight (distinct shadows)<sup style="line-height: 1em;">a, b</sup></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em; text-align: center;">15</td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">Typical scene in hazy sunlight (soft shadows)</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em; text-align: center;">14</td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">Typical scene, cloudy bright (no shadows)</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em; text-align: center;">13</td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">Typical scene, heavy overcast</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em; text-align: center;">12</td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">Areas in open shade, clear sunlight</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em; text-align: center;">12</td></tr>
<tr><th colspan="2" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;">Outdoor, Natural light</th></tr>
<tr><td colspan="2" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">Rainbows</td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 1.5em; padding-right: 1.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">Clear sky background</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em; text-align: center;">15</td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 1.5em; padding-right: 1.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">Cloudy sky background</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em; text-align: center;">14</td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="2" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">Sunsets and skylines</td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 1.5em; padding-right: 1.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">Just before sunset</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em; text-align: center;">12–14</td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 1.5em; padding-right: 1.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">At sunset</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em; text-align: center;">12</td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 1.5em; padding-right: 1.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">Just after sunset</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em; text-align: center;">9–11</td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="2" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">The Moon,<sup style="line-height: 1em;">c</sup> <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altitude_(astronomy)" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Altitude (astronomy)">altitude</a> > 40°</td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 1.5em; padding-right: 1.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">Full</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em; text-align: center;">15</td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 1.5em; padding-right: 1.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">Gibbous</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em; text-align: center;">14</td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 1.5em; padding-right: 1.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">Quarter</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em; text-align: center;">13</td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 1.5em; padding-right: 1.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">Crescent</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em; text-align: center;">12</td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="2" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">Moonlight, Moon altitude > 40°</td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 1.5em; padding-right: 1.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">Full</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em; text-align: center;">−3 to −2</td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 1.5em; padding-right: 1.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">Gibbous</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em; text-align: center;">−4</td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 1.5em; padding-right: 1.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">Quarter</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em; text-align: center;">−6</td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="2" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">Aurora borealis and australis</td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 1.5em; padding-right: 1.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">Bright</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em; text-align: center;">−4 to −3</td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 1.5em; padding-right: 1.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">Medium</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em; text-align: center;">−6 to −5</td></tr>
<tr><th colspan="2" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;">Outdoor, Artificial Light</th></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">Neon and other bright signs</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em; text-align: center;">9–10</td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">Night sports</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em; text-align: center;">9</td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">Fires and burning buildings</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em; text-align: center;">9</td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">Bright street scenes</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em; text-align: center;">8</td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">Night street scenes and window displays</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em; text-align: center;">7–8</td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">Night vehicle traffic</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em; text-align: center;">5</td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">Fairs and amusement parks</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em; text-align: center;">7</td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">Christmas tree lights</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em; text-align: center;">4–5</td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">Floodlit buildings, monuments, and fountains</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em; text-align: center;">3–5</td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">Distant views of lighted buildings</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em; text-align: center;">2</td></tr>
<tr><th colspan="2" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;">Indoor, Artificial Light</th></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">Galleries</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em; text-align: center;">8–11</td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">Sports events, stage shows, and the like</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em; text-align: center;">8–9</td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">Circuses, floodlit</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em; text-align: center;">8</td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">Ice shows, floodlit</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em; text-align: center;">9</td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">Offices and work areas</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em; text-align: center;">7–8</td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">Home interiors</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em; text-align: center;">5–7</td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em;">Christmas tree lights</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em; text-align: center;">4–5</td></tr>
</tbody></table></dd></dl><ol style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-image: none; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 3.2em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.3em; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;" type="a"><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Values for direct sunlight apply between approximately two hours after sunrise and two hours before sunset, and assume front lighting. As a rough general rule, decrease EV by 1 for side lighting, and decrease EV by 2 for back lighting</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">This is approximately the value given by the <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunny_16" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Sunny 16">sunny 16</a> rule.</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">These values are appropriate for pictures of the Moon taken at night with a long lens or telescope, and will render the Moon as a medium tone. They will not, in general, be suitable for landscape pictures that include the Moon. In a landscape photograph, the Moon typically is near the horizon, where its luminance changes considerably with <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altitude_(astronomy)" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Altitude (astronomy)">altitude</a>. Moreover, a landscape photograph usually must take account of the sky and foreground as well as the Moon. Consequently, it is nearly impossible to give a single correct exposure value for such a situation.</li>
</ol><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Exposure values in Table 2 are reasonable general guidelines, but they should be used with caution. For simplicity, they are rounded to the nearest integer, and they omit numerous considerations described in the ANSI exposure guides from which they are derived. Moreover, they take no account of color shifts or <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reciprocity_(photography)" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Reciprocity (photography)">reciprocity</a> failure. Proper use of tabluated exposure values is explained in detail in the ANSI exposure guide, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exposure_value#CITEREFANSI_PH2.7-1986" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">ANSI PH2.7-1986</a>.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">The exposure values in Table 2 are for ISO 100 speed (“EV<sub style="font-size: 9px; line-height: 1em;">100</sub>”). For a different ISO speed <span class="texhtml" dir="ltr" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;"><i>S</i></span>, increase the exposure values (decrease the exposures) by the number of exposure steps by which that speed is greater than ISO 100, formally</div><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><img alt="\mathrm{EV}_{S} = \mathrm{EV}_{100} + \log_2 \frac {S} {100} \,." class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/c/8/0/c80d15b8b975e8f080bd563e3fa32917.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" /></dd></dl><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">For example, ISO 400 speed is two steps greater than ISO 100:</div><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><img alt="\mathrm{EV}_{400} = \mathrm{EV}_{100} + \log_2 \frac {400} {100}
= \mathrm{EV}_{100} + 2 \,." class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/a/3/3/a33337556ba5e11fc4349b7eb3101dfa.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" /></dd></dl><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">To photograph outdoor night sports with an ISO 400–speed imaging medium, search Table 2 for “Night sports” (which has an EV of 9), and add 2 to get <span style="white-space: nowrap;">EV<sub style="font-size: 9px; line-height: 1em;">400</sub> = 11</span>.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">For lower ISO speed, decrease the exposure values (increase the exposures) by the number of exposure steps by which the speed is less than ISO 100. For example, ISO 50 speed is one step less than ISO 100:</div><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><img alt="\mathrm{EV}_{50} = \mathrm{EV}_{100} + \log_2 \frac {50} {100}
= \mathrm{EV}_{100} - 1 \,." class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/0/5/e/05ed75d960cc7aa4835e7953235f975b.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" /></dd></dl><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">To photograph a rainbow against a cloudy sky with an ISO 50–speed imaging medium, search Table 2 for “Rainbows-Cloudy sky background” (which has an EV of 14), and subtract 1 to get <span style="white-space: nowrap;">EV<sub style="font-size: 9px; line-height: 1em;">50</sub> = 13</span>.</div><h2 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; color: black; font-size: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.6em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Exposure_value&action=edit&section=5" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Setting EV on a camera">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Setting_EV_on_a_camera">Setting EV on a camera</span></h2><div class="thumb tleft" style="background-color: transparent; clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 1.4em; margin-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><div class="thumbinner" style="background-color: #f9f9f9; border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; font-size: 12px; min-width: 100px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-top: 3px !important; text-align: center; width: 222px;"><a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kodak_Pony_II_Camera.jpg" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="" class="thumbimage" height="145" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Kodak_Pony_II_Camera.jpg/220px-Kodak_Pony_II_Camera.jpg" style="background-color: white; border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-color: initial; border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" width="220" /></a><div class="thumbcaption" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; font-size: 11px; line-height: 1.4em; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-top: 3px !important; text-align: left;"><div class="magnify" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; float: right;"><a class="internal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kodak_Pony_II_Camera.jpg" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; color: #0645ad; display: block; text-decoration: none;" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="http://bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.18/common/images/magnify-clip.png" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; border-width: initial; display: block; vertical-align: middle;" width="15" /></a></div>A Kodak Pony II camera with exposure value setting ring</div></div></div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">On most cameras, there is no direct way to transfer an EV to camera settings; however, a few cameras, such as some <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voigtl%C3%A4nder" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Voigtländer">Voigtländer</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Braun_Camera-Werk" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Carl Braun Camera-Werk">Braun</a> models or the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kodak" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Kodak">Kodak</a> Pony II shown in the photo, allowed direct setting of exposure value.</div><div class="thumb tright" style="background-color: transparent; clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1.3em; margin-left: 1.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><div class="thumbinner" style="background-color: #f9f9f9; border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; font-size: 12px; min-width: 100px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-top: 3px !important; text-align: center; width: 222px;"><a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Hasselblad_with_Planar_80mm_at_EV_12.jpg" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="" class="thumbimage" height="329" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Hasselblad_with_Planar_80mm_at_EV_12.jpg/220px-Hasselblad_with_Planar_80mm_at_EV_12.jpg" style="background-color: white; border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-color: initial; border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" width="220" /></a><div class="thumbcaption" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; font-size: 11px; line-height: 1.4em; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-top: 3px !important; text-align: left;"><div class="magnify" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; float: right;"><a class="internal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Hasselblad_with_Planar_80mm_at_EV_12.jpg" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; color: #0645ad; display: block; text-decoration: none;" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="http://bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.18/common/images/magnify-clip.png" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; border-width: initial; display: block; vertical-align: middle;" width="15" /></a></div>Hasselblad Planar 80mm with EVS set at EV 12</div></div></div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Some medium-format cameras from <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rollei" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Rollei">Rollei</a> (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rolleiflex" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Rolleiflex">Rolleiflex</a>,<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rolleicord" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Rolleicord">Rolleicord</a> models) and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hasselblad" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Hasselblad">Hasselblad</a> allowed EV to be set on the lenses. The set EV could be locked, coupling shutter and aperture settings, such that adjusting either the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shutter_speed" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Shutter speed">shutter speed</a> or <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aperture" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Aperture">aperture</a> made a corresponding adjustment in the other to maintain a constant exposure. On some lenses the locking was optional, so that the photographer could chose the preferred method of working depending on the situation. Use of the EV scale on Hasselblad cameras is discussed briefly by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exposure_value#CITEREFAdams1981" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">Adams (1981</a>, 39).</div><h2 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; color: black; font-size: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.6em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Exposure_value&action=edit&section=6" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Exposure compensation in EV">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Exposure_compensation_in_EV">Exposure compensation in EV</span></h2><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Many current cameras allow for <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exposure_compensation" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Exposure compensation">exposure compensation</a>, and usually state it in terms of EV (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exposure_value#CITEREFRay2000" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">Ray 2000</a>, 316). In this context, EV refers to the <i>difference</i> between the indicated and set exposures. For example, an <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exposure_compensation" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Exposure compensation">exposure compensation</a> of +1 EV (or +1 step) means to increase exposure, by using either a longer exposure time or a smaller <span class="texhtml" dir="ltr" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;"><i>f</i></span>-number.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">The sense of exposure compensation is opposite that of the EV scale itself. An <i>increase</i> in exposure corresponds to a <i>decrease</i> in EV, so an exposure compensation of +1 EV results in a smaller EV; conversely, an exposure compensation of −1 EV results in a greater EV. For example, if a meter reading of a lighter-than-normal subject indicates EV 16, and an exposure compensation of +1 EV is applied to render the subject appropriately, the final camera settings will correspond to EV 15.</div><h2 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; color: black; font-size: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.6em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Exposure_value&action=edit&section=7" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Meter indication in EV">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Meter_indication_in_EV">Meter indication in EV</span></h2><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Some <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light_meter" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Light meter">light meters</a> (e.g., Pentax <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spot_meter" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Spot meter">spot meters</a>) indicate directly in EV at ISO 100. Some other meters, especially digital models, can indicate EV for the selected ISO speed. In most cases, this difference is irrelevant; with the Pentax meters, camera settings usually are determined using the exposure calculator, and most digital meters directly display shutter speeds and <span class="texhtml" dir="ltr" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;"><i>f</i></span>-numbers.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Recently, articles on many web sites have used <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light_value" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Light value">light value</a></i> (LV) to denote EV at ISO 100. However, this term does not derive from a standards body, and has had several conflicting definitions.</div><h2 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; color: black; font-size: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.6em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Exposure_value&action=edit&section=8" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Relationship of EV to lighting conditions">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Relationship_of_EV_to_lighting_conditions">Relationship of EV to lighting conditions</span></h2><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">The recommended <var>f</var>-number and exposure time for given lighting conditions and ISO speed are given by the exposure equation</div><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><img alt="
\frac {N^2} {t} = \frac {L \cdot S} {K} \,,
" class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/4/a/f/4af94e7d4ecbd3157edb5566d6fafd63.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" /></dd></dl><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">where<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-3" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exposure_value#cite_note-3" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>4<span>]</span></a></sup></div><ul style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-image: url(data:image/png; list-style-type: square; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 1.5em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.3em; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i>N</i> is the relative <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aperture" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Aperture">aperture</a> (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F-number" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="F-number">f-number</a>)</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i>t</i> is the exposure time (“<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shutter_speed" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Shutter speed">shutter speed</a>”) in seconds<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-no_units_1-1" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exposure_value#cite_note-no_units-1" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>2<span>]</span></a></sup></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i>L</i> is the average scene <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luminance" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Luminance">luminance</a></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i>S</i> is the ISO arithmetic <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Film speed">speed</a></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i>K</i> is the reflected-light <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light_meter#Calibration_constants" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Light meter">meter calibration constant</a></li>
</ul><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Applied to the right-hand side of the exposure equation, exposure value is</div><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><img alt="\mathrm {EV} = \log_2 {\frac {L \cdot S} {K} } \,." class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/6/a/5/6a5b5367accc2da57a0793d5c2e05e03.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" /></dd></dl><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Camera settings also can be determined from incident-light measurements, for which the exposure equation is</div><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><img alt="
\frac {N^2} {t} = \frac {E \cdot S} {C} \,,
" class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/4/c/6/4c627e6e978a65b8839e92d68e4fc17e.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" /></dd></dl><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">where</div><ul style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-image: url(data:image/png; list-style-type: square; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 1.5em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.3em; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i>E</i> is the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illuminance" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Illuminance">illuminance</a></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i>C</i> is the incident-light meter calibration constant</li>
</ul><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">In terms of exposure value, the right-hand side becomes</div><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><img alt="\mathrm {EV} = \log_2 {\frac {E \cdot S} {C} } \,." class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/7/4/7/747b10ac7ab4fe784ed24f1179deb957.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" /></dd></dl><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">When applied to the left-hand side of the exposure equation, EV denotes actual combinations of camera settings; when applied to the right-hand side, EV denotes combinations of camera settings required to give the nominally “correct” exposure. The formal relationship of EV to luminance or illuminance has limitations. Although it usually works well for typical outdoor scenes in daylight, it is less applicable to scenes with highly atypical luminance distributions, such as city skylines at night. In such situations, the EV that will result in the best picture often is better determined by subjective evaluation of photographs than by formal consideration of luminance or illuminance.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">For a given luminance and film speed, a greater EV results in less exposure, and for fixed exposure (i.e., fixed camera settings), a greater EV corresponds to greater luminance or illuminance.</div><h2 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; color: black; font-size: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.6em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Exposure_value&action=edit&section=9" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: EV and APEX">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="EV_and_APEX">EV and APEX</span></h2><div class="rellink relarticle mainarticle" style="font-style: italic; margin-bottom: 0.5em; padding-left: 2em;">Main article: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/APEX_system" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="APEX system">APEX system</a></div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">The <i>Additive system of Photographic EXposure</i> (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/APEX_system" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="APEX system">APEX</a>) proposed in the 1960 <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Standards_Association" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="American Standards Association">ASA</a> standard for monochrome film speed, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exposure_value#CITEREFASA_PH2.5-1960" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">ASA PH2.5-1960</a>, extended the concept of exposure value to all quantities in the exposure equation by taking base-2 logarithms, reducing application of the equation to simple addition and subtraction. In terms of exposure value, the left-hand side of the exposure equation became</div><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><img alt="E_v = A_v + T_v \,," class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/9/e/5/9e503d77b7aa518446c8b896b0462733.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" /></dd></dl><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">where <var>A<sub style="line-height: 1em;">v</sub></var> (aperture value) and <var>T<sub style="line-height: 1em;">v</sub></var> (time value) were defined as:</div><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><span class="texhtml" dir="ltr" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;"><i>A</i><sub style="line-height: 1em;"><i>v</i></sub> = log <sub style="line-height: 1em;">2</sub></span> <span class="texhtml" dir="ltr" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;"><i>A</i><sup style="line-height: 1em;">2</sup></span></dd></dl><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">and</div><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><span class="texhtml" dir="ltr" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;"><i>T</i><sub style="line-height: 1em;"><i>v</i></sub> = log <sub style="line-height: 1em;">2</sub></span> <img alt="(1/T) \,," class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/a/f/e/afe42af3dd7e58cb018b19bc9d3deb73.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" /></dd></dl><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">with</div><ul style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-image: url(data:image/png; list-style-type: square; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 1.5em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.3em; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><var>A</var> the relative aperture (f-number)</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><var>T</var> the exposure time (“shutter speed”) in seconds<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-no_units_1-2" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exposure_value#cite_note-no_units-1" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>2<span>]</span></a></sup></li>
</ul><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;"><var>A<sub style="line-height: 1em;">v</sub></var> and <var>T<sub style="line-height: 1em;">v</sub></var> represent the numbers of stops from <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', Candara, Georgia, Calibri, Corbel, serif; font-style: italic;">f</span>/1 and 1 second, respectively.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Use of APEX required logarithmic markings on aperture and shutter controls, however, and these never were incorporated in consumer cameras. With the inclusion of built-in exposure meters in most cameras shortly after APEX was proposed, the need to use the exposure equation was eliminated, and APEX saw little actual use.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Though it remains of little interest to the end user, APEX has seen a partial resurrection in the <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exif" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Exif">Exif</a> standard, which calls for storing exposure data using APEX values. See <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/APEX_system#Use_of_APEX_values_in_Exif" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="APEX system">Use of APEX values in Exif</a> for additional discussion.</div><h2 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; color: black; font-size: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.6em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Exposure_value&action=edit&section=10" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: EV as a measure of luminance and illuminance">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="EV_as_a_measure_of_luminance_and_illuminance">EV as a measure of luminance and illuminance</span></h2><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">For a given ISO speed and meter calibration constant, there is a direct relationship between exposure value and luminance (or illuminance). Strictly, EV is not a measure of luminance or illuminance; rather, an EV corresponds to a luminance (or illuminance) for which a camera with a given ISO speed would use the indicated EV to obtain the nominally correct exposure. Nonetheless, it is common practice among photographic equipment manufacturers to express luminance in EV for ISO 100 speed, as when specifying metering range (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exposure_value#CITEREFRay2000" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">Ray 2000</a>, 318) or autofocus sensitivity. And the practice is long established; <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exposure_value#CITEREFRay2002" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">Ray (2002</a>, 592) cites <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exposure_value#CITEREFUlffers1968" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">Ulffers (1968)</a> as an early example. Properly, the meter calibration constant as well as the ISO speed should be stated, but this seldom is done.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Values for the reflected-light calibration constant <var>K</var> vary slightly among manufacturers; a common choice is 12.5 (<a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canon_Inc." style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Canon Inc.">Canon</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikon" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Nikon">Nikon</a>, and<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mamiya" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Mamiya">Sekonic</a><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-4" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exposure_value#cite_note-4" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>5<span>]</span></a></sup>). Using <span style="white-space: nowrap;"><var>K</var> = 12.5</span>, the relationship between EV at ISO 100 and luminance <var>L</var> is then</div><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><img alt="L = 2^{\mathrm {EV} - 3} \,." class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/6/d/9/6d9c0cda20c52c9b5502624f485b873c.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" /></dd></dl><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Values of luminance at various values of EV based on this relationship are shown in Table 3. Using this relationship, a reflected-light exposure meter that indicates in EV can be used to determine luminance.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">As with luminance, common practice among photographic equipment manufacturers is to express illuminance in EV for ISO 100 speed when specifying metering range.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-5" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exposure_value#cite_note-5" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>6<span>]</span></a></sup></div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">The situation with incident-light meters is more complicated than that for reflected-light meters, because the calibration constant <var>C</var> depends on the sensor type. Two sensor types are common: flat (<a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosine" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Cosine">cosine</a>-responding) and hemispherical (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardioid" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Cardioid">cardioid</a>-responding). Illuminance is measured with a flat sensor; a typical value for <var>C</var> is 250 with illuminance in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lux" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Lux">lux</a>. Using <span style="white-space: nowrap;"><var>C</var> = 250</span>, the relationship between EV at ISO 100 and illuminance <var>E</var> is then</div><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><img alt="E = 2.5 \times 2^{\mathrm {EV}} \,." class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/d/4/7/d47b29839660c7642bf9b2be9a836bee.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" /></dd></dl><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Values of illuminance at various values of EV based on this relationship are shown in Table 3. Using this relationship, an incident-light exposure meter that indicates in EV can be used to determine illuminance.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Although illuminance measurements may indicate appropriate exposure for a flat subject, they are less useful for a typical scene in which many elements are not flat and are at various orientations to the camera. For determining practical photographic exposure, a hemispherical sensor has proven more effective. With a hemispherical sensor, typical values for <var>C</var> are between 320 (Minolta) and 340 (Sekonic) with illuminance in lux. If illuminance is interpreted loosely, measurements with a hemispherical sensor indicate “scene illuminance”.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light_meter#Exposure_meter_calibration" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Light meter">Exposure meter calibration</a> is discussed in detail in the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light_meter" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Light meter">Light meter</a> article.</div><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><b>Table 3. Exposure value vs. luminance (ISO 100, <var>K</var> = 12.5) and illuminance (ISO 100, <var>C</var> = 250)</b></dd></dl><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><table class="wikitable" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #f9f9f9; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-collapse: collapse; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; color: black; font-size: 13px; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 1em; margin-top: 1em; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><th rowspan="2" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"> EV<sub style="line-height: 1em;">100</sub> </th><th colspan="2" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"> Luminance</th><th colspan="2" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"> Illuminance</th></tr>
<tr><th style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Candela_per_square_metre" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Candela per square metre">cd/m<sup style="line-height: 1em;">2</sup></a> </th><th style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"> <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Footlambert" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Footlambert">fL</a> </th><th style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lux" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Lux">lx</a> </th><th style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foot-candle" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Foot-candle">fc</a> </th></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em; text-align: right;">−4</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">0.008</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">0.0023</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">0.156</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">0.015</td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em; text-align: right;">−3</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">0.016</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">0.0046</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">0.313</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">0.029</td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em; text-align: right;">−2</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">0.031</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">0.0091</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">0.625</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">0.058</td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em; text-align: right;">−1</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">0.063</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">0.018</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">1.25</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">0.116</td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em; text-align: right;">0</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">0.125</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">0.036</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">2.5</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">0.232</td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em; text-align: right;">1</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">0.25</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">0.073</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">5</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">0.465</td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em; text-align: right;">2</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">0.5</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">0.146</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">10</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">0.929</td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em; text-align: right;">3</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">1</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">0.292</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">20</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">1.86</td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em; text-align: right;">4</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">2</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">0.584</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">40</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">3.72</td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em; text-align: right;">5</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">4</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">1.17</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">80</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">7.43</td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em; text-align: right;">6</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">8</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">2.33</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">160</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">14.9</td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em; text-align: right;">7</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">16</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">4.67</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">320</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">29.7</td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em; text-align: right;">8</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">32</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">9.34</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">640</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">59.5</td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em; text-align: right;">9</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">64</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">18.7</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">1280</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">119</td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em; text-align: right;">10</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">128</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">37.4</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">2560</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">238</td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em; text-align: right;">11</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">256</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">74.7</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">5120</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">476</td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em; text-align: right;">12</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">512</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">149</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">10,240</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">951</td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em; text-align: right;">13</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">1024</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">299</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">20,480</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">1903</td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em; text-align: right;">14</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">2048</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">598</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">40,960</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">3805</td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em; text-align: right;">15</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">4096</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">1195</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">81,920</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">7611</td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.1em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.1em; text-align: right;">16</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">8192</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">2391</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">163,840</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">15,221</td></tr>
</tbody></table></dd></dl>John Michael Acehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16447213303343013873noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1050591295065099165.post-87390920163500096802011-10-28T19:47:00.001-07:002011-10-28T19:47:24.178-07:00Chromatic Aberration<span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px;"></span><br />
<div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">In <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optics" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Optics">optics</a>, <b>chromatic aberration</b> (CA, also called <b>achromatism</b> or <b>chromatic distortion</b>) is a type of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distortion" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Distortion">distortion</a> in which there is a failure of a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lens_(optics)" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Lens (optics)">lens</a> to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Focus_(optics)" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Focus (optics)">focus</a> all <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Color">colors</a> to the same convergence point. It occurs because lenses have a different <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Refractive_index" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Refractive index">refractive index</a> for different <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wavelengths" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Wavelengths">wavelengths</a> of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Light">light</a>(the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dispersion_(optics)" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Dispersion (optics)">dispersion</a> of the lens). The refractive index decreases with increasing wavelength.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Chromatic <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aberration_in_optical_systems" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Aberration in optical systems">aberration</a> manifests itself as "fringes" of color along boundaries that separate dark and bright parts of the image, because each color in the <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_spectrum" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Optical spectrum">optical spectrum</a> cannot be focused at a single common point. Since the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Focal_length" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Focal length">focal length</a> <i>f</i> of a lens is dependent on the refractive index <i>n</i>, different wavelengths of light will be focused on different positions.</div><table class="toc" id="toc" style="background-color: #f9f9f9; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; font-size: 12px; padding-bottom: 5px; padding-left: 5px; padding-right: 5px; padding-top: 5px;"><tbody>
<tr><td><div id="toctitle" style="direction: ltr; text-align: center;"><h2 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; border-width: initial; color: black; display: inline; font-size: 12px; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0.6em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; width: auto;">Contents</h2> <span class="toctoggle" style="font-size: 11px;"> [<a class="internal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromatic_Aberration#" id="togglelink" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">hide</a>] </span></div><ul style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-image: none; list-style-type: none; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.3em; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left;"><li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromatic_Aberration#Types" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Types</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromatic_Aberration#Minimization" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Minimization</span></a><ul style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-image: none; list-style-type: none; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 2em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left;"><li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromatic_Aberration#Mathematics_of_chromatic_aberration_minimization" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Mathematics of chromatic aberration minimization</span></a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-4" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromatic_Aberration#Image_processing_to_reduce_the_appearance_of_lateral_chromatic_aberration" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Image processing to reduce the appearance of lateral chromatic aberration</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-5" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromatic_Aberration#Photography" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Photography</span></a><ul style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-image: none; list-style-type: none; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 2em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left;"><li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromatic_Aberration#Black-and-white_photography" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">4.1</span> <span class="toctext">Black-and-white photography</span></a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-7" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromatic_Aberration#See_also" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-8" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromatic_Aberration#References" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-9" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromatic_Aberration#External_links" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">External links</span></a></li>
</ul></td></tr>
</tbody></table><h2 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; color: black; font-size: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.6em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Chromatic_aberration&action=edit&section=1" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Types">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Types">Types</span></h2><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Chromatic aberration can be both <i>axial</i> (<i>longitudinal</i>), in that different wavelengths are focused at a different distance from the lens, different points on the optical <i>axis</i> (focus <i>shift</i>); and <i>transverse</i> (<i>lateral</i>), in that different wavelengths are focused at different positions in the <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Focal_plane#Focal_points_and_planes" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Focal plane">focal plane</a> (because the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnification" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Magnification">magnification</a> and/or<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distortion_(optics)" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Distortion (optics)">distortion</a> of the lens also varies with wavelength; indicated in graphs as (change in) focus <i>length</i>). The acronym LCA is used, but ambiguous, and may refer to either longitudinal or lateral CA; for clarity, this article uses "axial" (shift in the direction of the optical axis) and "transverse" (shift perpendicular to the optical axis, in the plane of the sensor or film).</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">These two types have different characteristics, and may occur together. Axial CA occurs throughout the image, and is reduced by stopping down (this increases depth of field, so though the different wavelength focus at different distances, they are still in acceptable focus). Transverse CA does not occur in the center, and increases towards the edge, but is not affected by stopping down.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">In digital sensors, axial CA results in the red and blue planes being defocused (assuming that the green plane is in focus), which is relatively difficult to remedy in post-processing, while transverse CA results in the red, green, and blue planes being at different magnifications (magnification changing along radii, as in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distortion_(optics)" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Distortion (optics)">geometric distortion</a>), and can be corrected by scaling the planes appropriately so they line up.</div><h2 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; color: black; font-size: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.6em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Chromatic_aberration&action=edit&section=2" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Minimization">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Minimization">Minimization</span></h2><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">In the earliest uses of lenses, chromatic aberration was reduced by increasing the focal length of the lens where possible. For example, this could result in extremely long <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Refracting_telescope#Keplerian_Telescope" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Refracting telescope">telescopes</a> such as the very long <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerial_telescope" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Aerial telescope">aerial telescopes</a> of the 17th century. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a>'s theories about <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_light" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="White light">white light</a> being composed of a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spectrum" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Spectrum">spectrum</a> of colors led him to the conclusion that uneven refraction of light caused chromatic aberration (leading him to build the first <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reflecting_telescope" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Reflecting telescope">reflecting telescope</a>, his <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newtonian_telescope" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Newtonian telescope">Newtonian telescope</a>, in 1668<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-books.google.com_0-0" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromatic_Aberration#cite_note-books.google.com-0" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;"><span>[</span>1<span>]</span></a></sup>).</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">There exists a point called the <i><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circle_of_least_confusion" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Circle of least confusion">circle of least confusion</a></i>, where chromatic aberration can be minimized. It can be further minimized by using an <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Achromatic_lens" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Achromatic lens">achromatic lens</a> or <i>achromat</i>, in which materials with differing dispersion are assembled together to form a compound lens. The most common type is an achromatic <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doublet_(lens)" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Doublet (lens)">doublet</a>, with elements made of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crown_glass_(optics)" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Crown glass (optics)">crown</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flint_glass" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Flint glass">flint glass</a>. This reduces the amount of chromatic aberration over a certain range of wavelengths, though it does not produce perfect correction. By combining more than two lenses of different composition, the degree of correction can be further increased, as seen in an <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apochromatic_lens" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Apochromatic lens">apochromatic lens</a> or <i>apochromat</i>. Note that "achromat" and "apochromat" refer to the <i>type</i> of correction (2 or 3 wavelengths correctly focused), not the <i>degree</i> (how defocused the other wavelengths are), and an achromat made with sufficiently low dispersion glass can yield significantly better correction than an achromat made with more conventional glass. Similarly, the benefit of apochromats is not simply that they focus 3 wavelengths sharply, but that their error on other wavelength is also quite small.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Many types of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Glass">glass</a> have been developed to reduce chromatic aberration. These are <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Low_dispersion_glass" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Low dispersion glass">low dispersion glass</a>, most notably, glasses containing<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluorite" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Fluorite">fluorite</a>. These hybridized glasses have a very low level of optical dispersion; only two compiled lenses made of these substances can yield a high level of correction.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">The use of achromats was an important step in the development of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microscope" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Microscope">optical microscope</a> and in <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telescopes" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Telescopes">telescopes</a>.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">An alternative to achromatic doublets is the use of diffractive optical elements. Diffractive optical elements have complementary dispersion characteristics to that of optical glasses and plastics. In the visible part of the spectrum, diffractives have an <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbe_number" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Abbe number">Abbe number</a> of −3.5. Diffractive optical elements can be fabricated using <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diamond_turning" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Diamond turning">diamond turning</a> techniques.</div><table align="left" style="font-size: 13px;"><tbody>
<tr><td><div class="thumb tright" style="background-color: transparent; clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1.3em; margin-left: 1.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><div class="thumbinner" style="background-color: #f9f9f9; border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; font-size: 12px; min-width: 100px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-top: 3px !important; text-align: center; width: 222px;"><a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Lens6a.svg" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="" class="thumbimage" height="133" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/47/Lens6a.svg/220px-Lens6a.svg.png" style="background-color: white; border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-color: initial; border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" width="220" /></a><div class="thumbcaption" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; font-size: 11px; line-height: 1.4em; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-top: 3px !important; text-align: left;"><div class="magnify" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; float: right;"><a class="internal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Lens6a.svg" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; color: #0645ad; display: block; text-decoration: none;" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="http://bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.18/common/images/magnify-clip.png" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; border-width: initial; display: block; vertical-align: middle;" width="15" /></a></div>Chromatic aberration of a single lens causes different wavelengths of light to have differing focal lengths</div></div></div></td><td><div class="thumb tright" style="background-color: transparent; clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1.3em; margin-left: 1.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><div class="thumbinner" style="background-color: #f9f9f9; border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; font-size: 12px; min-width: 100px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-top: 3px !important; text-align: center; width: 222px;"><a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Diffractive.png" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="" class="thumbimage" height="122" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Diffractive.png/220px-Diffractive.png" style="background-color: white; border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-color: initial; border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" width="220" /></a><div class="thumbcaption" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; font-size: 11px; line-height: 1.4em; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-top: 3px !important; text-align: left;"><div class="magnify" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; float: right;"><a class="internal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Diffractive.png" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; color: #0645ad; display: block; text-decoration: none;" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="http://bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.18/common/images/magnify-clip.png" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; border-width: initial; display: block; vertical-align: middle;" width="15" /></a></div>Diffractive optical element with complementary dispersion properties to that of glass can be used to correct for color aberration</div></div></div></td><td><div class="thumb tright" style="background-color: transparent; clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1.3em; margin-left: 1.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><div class="thumbinner" style="background-color: #f9f9f9; border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; font-size: 12px; min-width: 100px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-top: 3px !important; text-align: center; width: 222px;"><a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Lens6b-en.svg" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="" class="thumbimage" height="133" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Lens6b-en.svg/220px-Lens6b-en.svg.png" style="background-color: white; border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-color: initial; border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" width="220" /></a><div class="thumbcaption" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; font-size: 11px; line-height: 1.4em; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-top: 3px !important; text-align: left;"><div class="magnify" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; float: right;"><a class="internal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Lens6b-en.svg" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; color: #0645ad; display: block; text-decoration: none;" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="http://bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.18/common/images/magnify-clip.png" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; border-width: initial; display: block; vertical-align: middle;" width="15" /></a></div>For an <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Achromatic_doublet" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Achromatic doublet">achromatic doublet</a>, visible wavelengths have approximately the same focal length</div></div></div></td></tr>
<tr><td><div class="thumb tright" style="background-color: transparent; clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1.3em; margin-left: 1.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><div class="thumbinner" style="background-color: #f9f9f9; border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; font-size: 12px; min-width: 100px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-top: 3px !important; text-align: center; width: 222px;"><a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Achromatic_focal_curve.svg" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="" class="thumbimage" height="171" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Achromatic_focal_curve.svg/220px-Achromatic_focal_curve.svg.png" style="background-color: white; border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-color: initial; border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" width="220" /></a><div class="thumbcaption" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; font-size: 11px; line-height: 1.4em; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-top: 3px !important; text-align: left;"><div class="magnify" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; float: right;"><a class="internal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Achromatic_focal_curve.svg" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; color: #0645ad; display: block; text-decoration: none;" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="http://bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.18/common/images/magnify-clip.png" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; border-width: initial; display: block; vertical-align: middle;" width="15" /></a></div>An achromatic doublet brings two wavelengths to a common focus, leaving <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultraviolet" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Ultraviolet">UV</a>and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrared" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Infrared">IR</a> uncorrected and out of focus</div></div></div></td><td><div class="thumb tright" style="background-color: transparent; clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1.3em; margin-left: 1.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><div class="thumbinner" style="background-color: #f9f9f9; border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; font-size: 12px; min-width: 100px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-top: 3px !important; text-align: center; width: 222px;"><a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nearsighted_color_fringing_-9.5_diopter_-_Canon_PowerShot_A640_thru_glasses_-_overview.jpg" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="" class="thumbimage" height="165" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Nearsighted_color_fringing_-9.5_diopter_-_Canon_PowerShot_A640_thru_glasses_-_overview.jpg/220px-Nearsighted_color_fringing_-9.5_diopter_-_Canon_PowerShot_A640_thru_glasses_-_overview.jpg" style="background-color: white; border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-color: initial; border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" width="220" /></a><div class="thumbcaption" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; font-size: 11px; line-height: 1.4em; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-top: 3px !important; text-align: left;"><div class="magnify" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; float: right;"><a class="internal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nearsighted_color_fringing_-9.5_diopter_-_Canon_PowerShot_A640_thru_glasses_-_overview.jpg" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; color: #0645ad; display: block; text-decoration: none;" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="http://bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.18/common/images/magnify-clip.png" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; border-width: initial; display: block; vertical-align: middle;" width="15" /></a></div>Prismatic color distortion shown with a camera set for nearsighted focus, and using -9.5 diopter eyeglasses to correct the camera's myopia.</div></div></div></td><td valign="top"><div class="thumb tright" style="background-color: transparent; clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1.3em; margin-left: 1.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><div class="thumbinner" style="background-color: #f9f9f9; border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; font-size: 12px; min-width: 100px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-top: 3px !important; text-align: center; width: 222px;"><a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nearsighted_color_fringing_-9.5_diopter_-_Canon_PowerShot_A640_thru_glasses_-_closeup_detail.jpg" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="" class="thumbimage" height="176" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Nearsighted_color_fringing_-9.5_diopter_-_Canon_PowerShot_A640_thru_glasses_-_closeup_detail.jpg/220px-Nearsighted_color_fringing_-9.5_diopter_-_Canon_PowerShot_A640_thru_glasses_-_closeup_detail.jpg" style="background-color: white; border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-color: initial; border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" width="220" /></a><div class="thumbcaption" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; font-size: 11px; line-height: 1.4em; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-top: 3px !important; text-align: left;"><div class="magnify" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; float: right;"><a class="internal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nearsighted_color_fringing_-9.5_diopter_-_Canon_PowerShot_A640_thru_glasses_-_closeup_detail.jpg" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; color: #0645ad; display: block; text-decoration: none;" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="http://bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.18/common/images/magnify-clip.png" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; border-width: initial; display: block; vertical-align: middle;" width="15" /></a></div>Close-up of color shifting through corner of eyeglasses. The light and dark borders visible between color swatches do not exist.</div></div></div></td></tr>
</tbody></table><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;"><br style="clear: both;" /></div><h3 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; color: black; font-size: 17px; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Chromatic_aberration&action=edit&section=3" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Mathematics of chromatic aberration minimization">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Mathematics_of_chromatic_aberration_minimization">Mathematics of chromatic aberration minimization</span></h3><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">For a doublet consisting of two thin lenses in contact, the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbe_number" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Abbe number">Abbe number</a> of the lens materials is used to calculate the correct focal length of the lenses to ensure correction of chromatic aberration. If the focal lengths of the two lenses for light at the yellow <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fraunhofer_lines" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Fraunhofer lines">Fraunhofer</a> D-line (589.2 nm) are <i>f</i><sub style="line-height: 1em;">1</sub> and <i>f</i><sub style="line-height: 1em;">2</sub>, then best correction occurs for the condition:</div><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><img alt="f_1 \cdot V_1 + f_2 \cdot V_2 = 0" class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/9/f/6/9f6891b50eac1efe2a05d3dbe9414fd7.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" /></dd></dl><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">where <i>V</i><sub style="line-height: 1em;">1</sub> and <i>V</i><sub style="line-height: 1em;">2</sub> are the Abbe numbers of the materials of the first and second lenses, respectively. Since Abbe numbers are positive, one of the focal lengths must be negative, i.e., a diverging lens, for the condition to be met.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">The overall focal length of the doublet <i>f</i> is given by the standard formula for thin lenses in contact:</div><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><img alt="\frac{1}{f} = \frac{1}{f_1} + \frac{1}{f_2}" class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/0/4/d/04dd96699cc2a0eecb8aa53957fcdccb.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" /></dd></dl><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">and the above condition ensures this will be the focal length of the doublet for light at the blue and red Fraunhofer F and C lines (486.1 nm and 656.3 nm respectively). The focal length for light at other visible wavelengths will be similar but not exactly equal to this.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Chromatic aberration is used during an eye test to ensure that a correct lens power has been selected. The patient is confronted with red and green images and asked which is sharper. If the prescription is right, then the cornea, lens and prescribed lens will focus the red and green wavelengths just in front, and behind the retina, appearing of equal sharpness. If the lens is too powerful or weak, then one will focus on the retina, and the other will be much more blurred in comparison.</div><h2 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; color: black; font-size: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.6em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Chromatic_aberration&action=edit&section=4" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Image processing to reduce the appearance of lateral chromatic aberration">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Image_processing_to_reduce_the_appearance_of_lateral_chromatic_aberration">Image processing to reduce the appearance of lateral chromatic aberration</span></h2><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">In some circumstances it is possible to correct some of the effects of chromatic aberration in digital post-processing. However in real-world circumstances, chromatic aberration results in permanent loss of some image detail. Detailed knowledge of the optical system used to produce the image can allow for some useful correction. In an ideal situation, post-processing to remove or correct lateral chromatic aberration would involve scaling the fringed color channels, or subtracting some of a scaled versions of the fringed channels, so that all channels spatially overlap each other correctly in the final image.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">As chromatic aberration is complex (due to its relationship to focal length, etc.) some camera manufacturers employ lens-specific chromatic aberration appearance minimization techniques. All Nikon DSLRs with CMOS sensors and all Panasonic Lumix DSLRs, additionally some Nikon and Panasonic compact cameras, do such processing automatically in camera for <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JPEG" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="JPEG">JPEG</a> images. Nikon DSLRs additionally store correction-data in RAW-files for use by Nikon Capture, View NX and some other RAW tools. Due to the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canon_EF_lens_mount" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Canon EF lens mount">Canon EF lens mount</a> all-electronic lens communication and coupling system, the Canon's Digital Photo Professional software has one of the most advanced chromatic aberration appearance minimization (also vignetting and distortion handling) systems that uses lens model-specific focusing distance, focal length and aperture information stored in the Canon RAW (CR2) files. Third party software tools such as PTLens are also capable of performing complex chromatic aberration appearance minimization with their large database of cameras and lens.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">In reality, even a theoretically perfect post-processing based chromatic aberration reduction-removal-correction systems do not increase image detail as a lens that is optically well corrected for chromatic aberration would for the following reasons:</div><ul style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-image: url(data:image/png; list-style-type: square; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 1.5em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.3em; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Rescaling is only applicable to lateral chromatic aberration but there is also longitudinal chromatic aberration</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Rescaling individual color channels result in a loss of resolution from the original image</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Most camera sensors only capture a few and discrete (e.g., RGB) color channels but chromatic aberration is not discreet and occurs across the light spectrum</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">The dyes used in the digital camera sensors for capturing color are not very efficient so cross-channel color contamination is unavoidable and causes, for example, the chromatic aberration in the red channel to also be blended in to the green channel along with any green chromatic aberration.</li>
</ul><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">The above are closely related to the specific scene that is captured so no amount of programming and knowledge of the capturing equipment (e.g., camera and lens data) can overcome these limitations.</div><h2 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; color: black; font-size: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.6em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Chromatic_aberration&action=edit&section=5" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Photography">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Photography">Photography</span></h2><div class="thumb tright" style="background-color: transparent; clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1.3em; margin-left: 1.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><div class="thumbinner" style="background-color: #f9f9f9; border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; font-size: 12px; min-width: 100px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-top: 3px !important; text-align: center; width: 222px;"><a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Purple_fringing.jpg" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="" class="thumbimage" height="148" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Purple_fringing.jpg/220px-Purple_fringing.jpg" style="background-color: white; border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-color: initial; border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" width="220" /></a><div class="thumbcaption" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; font-size: 11px; line-height: 1.4em; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-top: 3px !important; text-align: left;"><div class="magnify" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; float: right;"><a class="internal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Purple_fringing.jpg" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; color: #0645ad; display: block; text-decoration: none;" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="http://bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.18/common/images/magnify-clip.png" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; border-width: initial; display: block; vertical-align: middle;" width="15" /></a></div>Severe purple fringing can be seen at the edges of the horse's forelock, mane, and ear.</div></div></div><div class="thumb tright" style="background-color: transparent; clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1.3em; margin-left: 1.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><div class="thumbinner" style="background-color: #f9f9f9; border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; font-size: 12px; min-width: 100px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-top: 3px !important; text-align: center; width: 222px;"><a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Chromatic_aberration_1_14_2009.jpg" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="" class="thumbimage" height="147" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/be/Chromatic_aberration_1_14_2009.jpg/220px-Chromatic_aberration_1_14_2009.jpg" style="background-color: white; border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-color: initial; border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" width="220" /></a><div class="thumbcaption" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; font-size: 11px; line-height: 1.4em; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-top: 3px !important; text-align: left;"><div class="magnify" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; float: right;"><a class="internal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Chromatic_aberration_1_14_2009.jpg" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; color: #0645ad; display: block; text-decoration: none;" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="http://bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.18/common/images/magnify-clip.png" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; border-width: initial; display: block; vertical-align: middle;" width="15" /></a></div>Chromatic aberrations around highlights (the white background)</div></div></div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">The term "<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Purple_fringing" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Purple fringing">purple fringing</a>" is commonly used in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photography" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Photography">photography</a>, although not all purple fringing can be attributed to chromatic aberration. Similar colored fringing around highlights may also be caused by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lens_flare" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Lens flare">lens flare</a>. Colored fringing around highlights or dark regions may be due to the receptors<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text in the vicinity of this tag needs clarification or removal of jargon from June 2007">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> for different colors having differing <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynamic_range" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Dynamic range">dynamic range</a> or <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Film speed">sensitivity</a> -- therefore preserving detail in one or two color channels, while "blowing out" or failing to register, in the other channel or channels. On digital cameras, the particular <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demosaicing" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Demosaicing">demosaicing</a> algorithm is likely to affect the apparent degree of this problem. Another cause of this fringing is chromatic aberration in the very small <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microlens" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Microlens">microlenses</a> used to collect more light for each CCD pixel; since these lenses are tuned to correctly focus green light, the incorrect focusing of red and blue results in purple fringing around highlights. This is a uniform problem across the frame, and is more of a problem in CCD's with a very small <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pixel_pitch" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Pixel pitch">pixel pitch</a> such as those used in compact cameras. Some cameras, such as the Panasonic <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lumix" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Lumix">Lumix</a> series and newer <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikon" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Nikon">Nikon</a> <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DSLR" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="DSLR">DSLRs</a>, feature a processing step specifically designed to remove it.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">On photographs taken using a digital camera, very small highlights may frequently appear to have chromatic aberration where in fact the effect is because the highlight image is too small to stimulate all three color pixels, and so is recorded with an incorrect color. This may not occur with all types of digital camera sensor. Again, the de-mosaicing algorithm may affect the apparent degree of the problem.</div><h3 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; color: black; font-size: 17px; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Chromatic_aberration&action=edit&section=6" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Black-and-white photography">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Black-and-white_photography">Black-and-white photography</span></h3><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Chromatic aberration also affects black-and-white photography. Although there are no colors in the photograph, chromatic aberration will blur the image. It can be reduced by using a narrow-band color filter, or by converting a single color channel to black and white. This will, however, require longer exposure. (This is only true with <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panchromatic_film" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Panchromatic film">panchromatic</a> black-and-white film, since <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orthochromatic" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Orthochromatic">orthochromatic</a>film is already sensitive to only a limited spectrum.)</div>John Michael Acehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16447213303343013873noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1050591295065099165.post-34310617036731539802011-10-28T19:33:00.001-07:002011-10-28T19:33:56.079-07:00Aperture<span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px;"></span><br />
<div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">In <span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #0645ad;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">optics</span></span>, an <b>aperture</b> is a hole or an opening through which <span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #0645ad;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">light</span></span> travels. More specifically, the aperture of an <span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #0645ad;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">optical system</span></span> is the opening that determines the cone angle of a bundle of <span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #0645ad;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">rays</span></span>that come to a <span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #0645ad;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">focus</span></span> in the <span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #0645ad;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">image plane</span></span>. The aperture determines how <span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #0645ad;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">collimated</span></span> the admitted rays are, which is of great importance for the appearance at the image plane. If an aperture is narrow, then highly collimated rays are admitted, resulting in a sharp focus at the image plane. If an aperture is wide, then uncollimated rays are admitted, resulting in a sharp focus only for rays with a certain focal length. This means that a wide aperture results in an image that is sharp around what the lens is focusing on and blurred otherwise. The aperture also determines how many of the incoming rays are actually admitted and thus how much light reaches the image plane (the narrower the aperture, the darker the image for a given exposure time).</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">An optical system typically has many openings, or structures that limit the ray bundles (ray bundles are also known as <i>pencils</i> of light). These structures may be the edge of a <span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #0645ad;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">lens</span></span> or <span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #0645ad;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">mirror</span></span>, or a ring or other fixture that holds an optical element in place, or may be a special element such as a <span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #0645ad;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">diaphragm</span></span> placed in the optical path to limit the light admitted by the system. In general, these structures are called <b>stops</b>, and the <b>aperture stop</b> is the stop that determines the ray cone angle, or equivalently the brightness, at an image point.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">In some contexts, especially in <span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #0645ad;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">photography</span></span> and <span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #0645ad;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">astronomy</span></span>, <i>aperture</i> refers to the <i>diameter</i> of the aperture stop rather than the physical stop or the opening itself. For example, in a <span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #0645ad;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">telescope</span></span> the aperture stop is typically the edges of the <span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #0645ad;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">objective lens</span></span> or mirror (or of the mount that holds it). One then speaks of a telescope as having, for example, a 100 centimeter <i>aperture</i>. Note that the aperture stop is not necessarily the smallest stop in the system. Magnification and demagnification by lenses and other elements can cause a relatively large stop to be the aperture stop for the system.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Sometimes stops and diaphragms are called apertures, even when they are not the aperture stop of the system.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">The word aperture is also used in other contexts to indicate a system which blocks off light outside a certain region. In astronomy for example, a <span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #0645ad;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">photometric</span></span> aperture around a <span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #0645ad;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">star</span></span> usually corresponds to a circular window around the image of a star within which the light intensity is summed.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-1" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #0645ad;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; white-space: nowrap;">2</span></span><span>]</span></sup></div><table class="toc" id="toc" style="background-color: #f9f9f9; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; font-size: 12px; padding-bottom: 5px; padding-left: 5px; padding-right: 5px; padding-top: 5px;"><tbody>
<tr><td><div id="toctitle" style="direction: ltr; text-align: center;"><h2 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; border-width: initial; color: black; display: inline; font-size: 12px; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0.6em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; width: auto;">Contents</h2> <span class="toctoggle" style="font-size: 11px;"> [<span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #0645ad;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">hide</span></span>] </span></div><ul style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-image: none; list-style-type: none; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.3em; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left;"><li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="tocnumber" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">1</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #0645ad;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;"> </span></span><span class="toctext">In photography</span><ul style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-image: none; list-style-type: none; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 2em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left;"><li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-2" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="tocnumber" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">1.1</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #0645ad;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;"> </span></span><span class="toctext">Aperture area</span></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="tocnumber" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">1.2</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #0645ad;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;"> </span></span><span class="toctext">Aperture control</span></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-4" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="tocnumber" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">2</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #0645ad;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;"> </span></span><span class="toctext">In scanning or sampling</span></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-5" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="tocnumber" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">3</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #0645ad;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;"> </span></span><span class="toctext">See also</span></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-6" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="tocnumber" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">4</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #0645ad;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;"> </span></span><span class="toctext">References</span></li>
</ul></td></tr>
</tbody></table><h2 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; color: black; font-size: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.6em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #0645ad;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">edit</span></span>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="In_photography">In photography</span></h2><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">The aperture stop of a <span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #0645ad;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">photographic lens</span></span> can be adjusted to control the amount of <span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #0645ad;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">light</span></span>reaching the <span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #0645ad;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">film</span></span> or <span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #0645ad;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">image sensor</span></span>. In combination with variation of <span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #0645ad;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">shutter speed</span></span>, the aperture size will regulate the film's or image sensor's degree of <span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #0645ad;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">exposure</span></span> to light. Typically, a fast shutter speed will require a larger aperture to ensure sufficient light exposure, and a slow shutter speed will require a smaller aperture to avoid excessive exposure.</div><div class="thumb tright" style="background-color: transparent; clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1.3em; margin-left: 1.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><div class="thumbinner" style="background-color: #f9f9f9; border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; font-size: 12px; min-width: 100px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-top: 3px !important; text-align: center; width: 352px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #0645ad;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-origin: initial; border-color: initial; border-width: initial;"><img alt="" class="thumbimage" height="139" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Aperture_diagram.svg/350px-Aperture_diagram.svg.png" style="background-color: white; border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-color: initial; border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" width="350" /></span></span><div class="thumbcaption" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; font-size: 11px; line-height: 1.4em; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-top: 3px !important; text-align: left;"><div class="magnify" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; float: right;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #0645ad;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-origin: initial !important; border-color: initial !important; border-color: initial !important; border-width: initial !important; border-width: initial !important;"><img alt="" height="11" src="http://bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.18/common/images/magnify-clip.png" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; border-width: initial; display: block; vertical-align: middle;" width="15" /></span></span></div>Diagram of decreasing aperture sizes (increasing <span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #0645ad;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">f-numbers</span></span>) for "full stop" increments (factor of two aperture area per stop)</div></div></div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">A device called a <span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #0645ad;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">diaphragm</span></span> usually serves as the aperture stop, and controls the aperture. The diaphragm functions much like the <span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #0645ad;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">iris</span></span> of the <span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #0645ad;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">eye</span></span> – it controls the effective <span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #0645ad;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">diameter</span></span> of the lens opening. Reducing the aperture size increases the <span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #0645ad;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">depth of field</span></span>, which describes the extent to which subject matter lying closer than or farther from the actual plane of focus appears to be in focus. In general, the smaller the aperture (the larger the number), the greater the distance from the plane of focus the subject matter may be while still appearing in focus.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">The lens aperture is usually specified as an <span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #0645ad;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">f-number</span></span>, the ratio of <span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #0645ad;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">focal length</span></span> to effective aperture diameter. A lens typically has a set of marked "f-stops" that the f-number can be set to. A lower f-number denotes a greater aperture opening which allows more light to reach the film or image sensor. The photography term "one f-stop" refers to a factor of √2 (approx. 1.41) change in f-number, which in turn corresponds to a factor of 2 change in light intensity.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #0645ad;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Aperture priority</span></span> is a semi-automatic shooting mode used in cameras. It allows the photographer to choose an aperture setting and allow the camera to decide the shutter speed and sometimes <span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #0645ad;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">ISO sensitivity</span></span> for the correct exposure. This is sometimes referred to as Aperture Priority Auto Exposure, A mode, Av mode, or semi-auto mode.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-2" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #0645ad;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; white-space: nowrap;">3</span></span><span>]</span></sup></div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Typical ranges of apertures used in photography are about <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', Candara, Georgia, Calibri, Corbel, serif; font-style: italic;">f</span>/2.8–<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', Candara, Georgia, Calibri, Corbel, serif; font-style: italic;">f</span>/22 or <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', Candara, Georgia, Calibri, Corbel, serif; font-style: italic;">f</span>/2–<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', Candara, Georgia, Calibri, Corbel, serif; font-style: italic;">f</span>/16,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-3" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #0645ad;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; white-space: nowrap;">4</span></span><span>]</span></sup> covering 6 stops, which may be divided into wide, middle, and narrow of 2 stops each, roughly (using round numbers) <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', Candara, Georgia, Calibri, Corbel, serif; font-style: italic;">f</span>/2–<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', Candara, Georgia, Calibri, Corbel, serif; font-style: italic;">f</span>/4, <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', Candara, Georgia, Calibri, Corbel, serif; font-style: italic;">f</span>/4–<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', Candara, Georgia, Calibri, Corbel, serif; font-style: italic;">f</span>/8, and <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', Candara, Georgia, Calibri, Corbel, serif; font-style: italic;">f</span>/8–<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', Candara, Georgia, Calibri, Corbel, serif; font-style: italic;">f</span>/16 or (for a slower lens) <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', Candara, Georgia, Calibri, Corbel, serif; font-style: italic;">f</span>/2.8–<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', Candara, Georgia, Calibri, Corbel, serif; font-style: italic;">f</span>/5.6, <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', Candara, Georgia, Calibri, Corbel, serif; font-style: italic;">f</span>/5.6–<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', Candara, Georgia, Calibri, Corbel, serif; font-style: italic;">f</span>/11, and<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', Candara, Georgia, Calibri, Corbel, serif; font-style: italic;">f</span>/11–<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', Candara, Georgia, Calibri, Corbel, serif; font-style: italic;">f</span>/22. These are not sharp divisions, and ranges for specific lenses vary.</div><h3 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; color: black; font-size: 17px; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #0645ad;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">edit</span></span>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Aperture_area">Aperture area</span></h3><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">The amount of light captured by a lens is proportional to the area of the aperture, equal to:</div><dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;"><img alt="\mathrm{Area} = \pi \left({f \over 2N}\right)^2" class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/a/d/c/adcd8400b9cff8f5ae4ff1cac2074b07.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" /></dd></dl><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Where <i>f</i> is <span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #0645ad;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">focal length</span></span> and <i>N</i> is the <span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #0645ad;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">f-number</span></span>.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">The focal length value is not required when comparing two lenses of the same focal length; a value of 1 can be used instead, and the other factors can be dropped as well, leaving area proportion to the reciprocal square of the f-number <i>N</i>.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">If two cameras of different format sizes and focal lengths have the same <span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #0645ad;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">angle of view</span></span>, and the same aperture area, they gather the same amount of light from the scene. The relative focal-plane <span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #0645ad;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">illuminance</span></span>, however, depends only on the f-number <i>N</i>, independent of the focal length, so is less in the camera with the larger format, longer focal length, and higher f-number. This assumes both lenses have identical transmissivity.</div><h3 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; color: black; font-size: 17px; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #0645ad;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">edit</span></span>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Aperture_control">Aperture control</span></h3><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Most <span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #0645ad;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">SLR cameras</span></span> provide <i>automatic aperture control</i>, which allows viewing and metering at the lens’s maximum aperture, stops the lens down to the working aperture during exposure, and returns the lens to maximum aperture after exposure.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Ray2000-136_4-0" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #0645ad;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; white-space: nowrap;">5</span></span><span>]</span></sup></div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">The first SLR cameras with internal (<span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #0645ad;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">“through-the-lens” or “TTL”</span></span>) meters (e.g., the <span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #0645ad;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Pentax Spotmatic</span></span>) required that the lens be stopped down to the working aperture when taking a meter reading. With a small aperture, this darkened the viewfinder, making viewing and composition difficult.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-5" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #0645ad;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; white-space: nowrap;">6</span></span><span>]</span></sup> Subsequent models soon incorporated mechanical coupling between the lens and the camera body, indicating the working aperture to the camera while allowing the lens to be at its maximum aperture for composition and focusing;<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Ray2000-136_4-1" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #0645ad;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; white-space: nowrap;">5</span></span><span>]</span></sup> this feature became known as automatic aperture control or automatic diaphragm control.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">For some lenses, including a few long <span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #0645ad;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">telephotos</span></span>, lenses mounted on <span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #0645ad;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">bellows</span></span>, and <span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #0645ad;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">perspective-control and tilt/shift</span></span> lenses, the mechanical linkage was impractical,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Ray2000-136_4-2" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #0645ad;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; white-space: nowrap;">5</span></span><span>]</span></sup> and automatic aperture control was not provided. Many such lenses incorporated a feature known as a “preset” aperture,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Ray2000-136_4-3" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #0645ad;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; white-space: nowrap;">5</span></span><span>]</span></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-6" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #0645ad;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; white-space: nowrap;">7</span></span><span>]</span></sup> which allows the lens to be set to working aperture and then quickly switched between working aperture and full aperture without looking at the aperture control. Typical operation might be to establish rough composition, set the working aperture for metering, return to full aperture for a final check of focus and composition, and focusing, and finally, return to working aperture just before exposure. Although slightly easier than stopped-down metering, operation is less convenient than automatic operation. Preset aperture controls have taken several forms; the most common has been the use of essentially two lens aperture rings, with one ring setting the aperture and the other serving as a limit stop when switching to working aperture. Examples of lenses with this type of preset aperture control are the Nikon PC Nikkor 28 mm <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', Candara, Georgia, Calibri, Corbel, serif; font-style: italic;">f</span>/3.5 and the SMC Pentax Shift 6×7 75 mm <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', Candara, Georgia, Calibri, Corbel, serif; font-style: italic;">f</span>/4.5. The Nikon PC Micro-Nikkor 85 mm <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', Candara, Georgia, Calibri, Corbel, serif; font-style: italic;">f</span>/2.8D lens incorporates a mechanical pushbutton that sets working aperture when pressed and restores full aperture when pressed a second time.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Canon <span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #0645ad;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">EF</span></span> lenses, introduced in 1987,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-7" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #0645ad;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; white-space: nowrap;">8</span></span><span>]</span></sup> have electromagnetic diaphragms,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-8" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #0645ad;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; white-space: nowrap;">9</span></span><span>]</span></sup> eliminating the need for a mechanical linkage between the camera and the lens, and allowing automatic aperture control with the Canon TS-E tilt/shift lenses. Nikon PC-E perspective-control lenses,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-9" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #0645ad;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; white-space: nowrap;">10</span></span><span>]</span></sup>introduced in 2008, also have electromagnetic diaphragms.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-10" style="font-style: normal; line-height: 1em;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #0645ad;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial; white-space: nowrap;">11</span></span><span>]</span></sup> Automatic aperture control is provided with the newer Nikon digital SLR cameras; with some earlier cameras, the lenses offer preset aperture control by means of a pushbutton that controls the electromagnetic diaphragm.</div><h2 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; color: black; font-size: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.6em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><span class="editsection" style="float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #0645ad;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">edit</span></span>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="In_scanning_or_sampling">In scanning or sampling</span></h2><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">The terms <i>scanning aperture</i> and <i>sampling aperture</i> are often used to refer to the opening through which an image is sampled, or scanned, for example in a <span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #0645ad;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">Drum scanner</span></span>, an <span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #0645ad;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">image sensor</span></span>, or a television pickup apparatus. The sampling aperture can be a literal optical aperture, that is, a small opening in space, or it can be a time-domain aperture for <span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #0645ad;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">sampling</span></span> a signal waveform.</div><div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">For example, <span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #0645ad;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">film grain</span></span> is quantified as <i>graininess</i> via a measurement of film density fluctuations as seen through a 0.048 mm sampling aperture.</div>John Michael Acehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16447213303343013873noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1050591295065099165.post-26583210355604835132011-10-24T22:39:00.000-07:002011-10-24T22:39:08.639-07:00<!--[if !mso]> <style>
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</style> <![endif]--> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><a href="http://www.blogger.com/goog_1518315743"><span style="color: black; text-decoration: none;">A <b>digital camera</b> (or <b>digicam</b>) is a </span></a><a href="http://www.blogger.com/goog_1518315743" title="Camera"><span style="color: black; text-decoration: none;">camera</span></a><a href="http://www.blogger.com/goog_1518315743"><span style="color: black; text-decoration: none;"> that takes </span></a><a href="http://www.blogger.com/goog_1518315743" title="Video"><span style="color: black; text-decoration: none;">video</span></a><a href="http://www.blogger.com/goog_1518315743"><span style="color: black; text-decoration: none;"> or still </span></a><a href="http://www.blogger.com/goog_1518315743" title="Photograph"><span style="color: black; text-decoration: none;">photographs</span></a><a href="http://www.blogger.com/goog_1518315743"><span style="color: black; text-decoration: none;">, or both, </span></a><a href="http://www.blogger.com/goog_1518315743" title="Digital"><span style="color: black; text-decoration: none;">digitally</span></a><a href="http://www.blogger.com/goog_1518315743"><span style="color: black; text-decoration: none;"> by recording </span></a><a href="http://www.blogger.com/goog_1518315743" title="Digital image"><span style="color: black; text-decoration: none;">images</span></a><a href="http://www.blogger.com/goog_1518315743"><span style="color: black; text-decoration: none;"> via an </span></a><a href="http://www.blogger.com/goog_1518315743" title="Electronics"><span style="color: black; text-decoration: none;">electronic</span></a><a href="http://www.blogger.com/goog_1518315743"><span style="color: black; text-decoration: none;"> </span></a><a href="http://www.blogger.com/goog_1518315743" title="Image sensor"><span style="color: black; text-decoration: none;">image sensor</span></a><a href="http://www.blogger.com/goog_1518315743"><span style="color: black; text-decoration: none;">. It is the main device used in the field of </span></a><a href="http://www.blogger.com/goog_1518315743" title="Digital photography"><span style="color: black; text-decoration: none;">digital photography</span></a><a href="http://www.blogger.com/goog_1518315743"><span style="color: black; text-decoration: none;">. Most 21st century cameras are digital.<sup>[1]</sup></span></a></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><a href="http://www.blogger.com/goog_1518315743"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; text-decoration: none;"><span><img alt="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Canon_PowerShot_A95_-_front_and_back.jpg/220px-Canon_PowerShot_A95_-_front_and_back.jpg" border="0" height="327" src="file:///C:/Users/J2B84%7E1.AYE/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image001.jpg" width="220" /></span></span></a><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><a href="http://www.blogger.com/goog_1518315743" title=""Enlarge" "><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; text-decoration: none;"><span><img alt="http://bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.18/common/images/magnify-clip.png" border="0" height="11" src="file:///C:/Users/J2B84%7E1.AYE/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image002.gif" width="15" /></span></span></a><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><a href="http://www.blogger.com/goog_1518315743"><span style="color: black; text-decoration: none;">Front and back of </span></a><a href="http://www.blogger.com/goog_1518315743" title="Canon PowerShot A"><span style="color: black; text-decoration: none;">Canon PowerShot A</span></a><a href="http://www.blogger.com/goog_1518315743"><span style="color: black; text-decoration: none;">95</span></a></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><a href="http://www.blogger.com/goog_1518315743"><span style="color: black; text-decoration: none;">Digital cameras can do things film cameras cannot: displaying images on a screen immediately after they are recorded, storing thousands of images on a single small memory device, and deleting images to free storage space. The majority, including most compact cameras, can record moving </span></a><a href="http://www.blogger.com/goog_1518315743" title="Video"><span style="color: black; text-decoration: none;">video</span></a><a href="http://www.blogger.com/goog_1518315743"><span style="color: black; text-decoration: none;"> with </span></a><a href="http://www.blogger.com/goog_1518315743" title="Sound recording and reproduction"><span style="color: black; text-decoration: none;">sound</span></a><a href="http://www.blogger.com/goog_1518315743"><span style="color: black; text-decoration: none;"> as well as still </span></a><a href="http://www.blogger.com/goog_1518315743" title="Photograph"><span style="color: black; text-decoration: none;">photographs</span></a><a href="http://www.blogger.com/goog_1518315743"><span style="color: black; text-decoration: none;">. Some can </span></a><a href="http://www.blogger.com/goog_1518315743" title="Cropping (image)"><span style="color: black; text-decoration: none;">crop</span></a><a href="http://www.blogger.com/goog_1518315743"><span style="color: black; text-decoration: none;"> and </span></a><a href="http://www.blogger.com/goog_1518315743" title="Image stitching"><span style="color: black; text-decoration: none;">stitch</span></a><a href="http://www.blogger.com/goog_1518315743"><span style="color: black; text-decoration: none;"> pictures and perform other elementary </span></a><a href="http://www.blogger.com/goog_1518315743" title="Image editing"><span style="color: black; text-decoration: none;">image editing</span></a><a href="http://www.blogger.com/goog_1518315743"><span style="color: black; text-decoration: none;">. Some have a GPS receiver built in, and can produce </span></a><a href="http://www.blogger.com/goog_1518315743" title="Geotagged photograph"><span style="color: black; text-decoration: none;">Geotagged photographs</span></a><a href="http://www.blogger.com/goog_1518315743"><span style="color: black; text-decoration: none;">.</span></a></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><a href="http://www.blogger.com/goog_1518315743"><span style="color: black; text-decoration: none;">The optical system works the same as in </span></a><a href="http://www.blogger.com/goog_1518315743" title="Film camera"><span style="color: black; text-decoration: none;">film cameras</span></a><a href="http://www.blogger.com/goog_1518315743"><span style="color: black; text-decoration: none;">, typically using a lens with a variable </span></a><a href="http://www.blogger.com/goog_1518315743" title="Diaphragm (optics)"><span style="color: black; text-decoration: none;">diaphragm</span></a><a href="http://www.blogger.com/goog_1518315743"><span style="color: black; text-decoration: none;"> to focus light onto an image pickup device. The diaphragm and shutter admit the correct amount of light to the imager, just as with film but the image pickup device is electronic rather than chemical. Most digicams, apart from camera phones and a few specialized types, have a standard </span></a><a href="http://www.blogger.com/goog_1518315743" title="Tripod (photography)"><span style="color: black; text-decoration: none;">tripod screw</span></a><a href="http://www.blogger.com/goog_1518315743"><span style="color: black; text-decoration: none;">.</span></a></span></div></m:defjc></m:rmargin></m:lmargin></m:dispdef></m:smallfrac>John Michael Acehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16447213303343013873noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1050591295065099165.post-64675435324421795972011-10-17T22:22:00.000-07:002011-10-17T22:31:35.567-07:00Getting to know the Digital Cameras!<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhP4v48NxXhF_hyphenhyphenznwk6gMiMRRWrBG7UtZxxqz5vtcZG2NY4C1F8YbFj1cfwT1ojzBuvlvtO6zJVhKh2Pfm0cIiL5Wr4r2p9hpe4ny-JUhy79vIqUyQKUgysiO6Xj9oVDIpwNZ2AdxVoqs/s1600/digital-photography-jpeg.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="130" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhP4v48NxXhF_hyphenhyphenznwk6gMiMRRWrBG7UtZxxqz5vtcZG2NY4C1F8YbFj1cfwT1ojzBuvlvtO6zJVhKh2Pfm0cIiL5Wr4r2p9hpe4ny-JUhy79vIqUyQKUgysiO6Xj9oVDIpwNZ2AdxVoqs/s200/digital-photography-jpeg.jpg" width="200" /></a><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjSPORv8Zr8rj09RagvMP4klcoOpCWEWl_yPf4vvQZcNwrwxG__AbT3dkhHrliFFxrOEx5uOhB5CkpESyO4FncK1J-5u5DvJcvBqYwQIBeShaiIPflBobL7PQDBxp1-ooYJGwagaO8_A88/s1600/good-compact-digital-camera-review.jpeg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" height="150" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjSPORv8Zr8rj09RagvMP4klcoOpCWEWl_yPf4vvQZcNwrwxG__AbT3dkhHrliFFxrOEx5uOhB5CkpESyO4FncK1J-5u5DvJcvBqYwQIBeShaiIPflBobL7PQDBxp1-ooYJGwagaO8_A88/s200/good-compact-digital-camera-review.jpeg" width="200" /></a><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjZnmrRNvhPJq9sbd-HTRwCr_Qi9xiQbJCX8jumWf1Eb1efZKezz9JiH1-wsB-mD2XcYDcLC_Xq7___B7XbruOey2VnHbRN7R6jhBLrIei8mPfM2ZCXYlEJD6iRrr-RGuy6F4KtAkIN1As/s1600/Nikon-D5000-DSLR.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="149" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjZnmrRNvhPJq9sbd-HTRwCr_Qi9xiQbJCX8jumWf1Eb1efZKezz9JiH1-wsB-mD2XcYDcLC_Xq7___B7XbruOey2VnHbRN7R6jhBLrIei8mPfM2ZCXYlEJD6iRrr-RGuy6F4KtAkIN1As/s200/Nikon-D5000-DSLR.jpg" width="200" /></a></div><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"> P</span>eople are confused on what kind of camera to be used in a special occasion. But before anything else, we should know first the types of Digital Cameras that are available in the market--- There are several types of digital camera that are always available in the market but we will just talk about the 2 common cameras that are <span style="font-size: small;">"IN" today</span>.<br />
<br />
<ul style="color: red;"><li><span style="font-size: x-large;">Compact Digital Camera (Digital Cam.) </span></li>
</ul><ul style="color: red;"><li><span style="font-size: x-large;">Digital Single-Lens Reflex Camera </span><span style="font-size: x-large;">(DSLR)</span></li>
</ul> As we all know, the camera's stated above are all Digital.. Let's define or get to know them one-by-one.<br />
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<span style="font-size: large;"> <span style="color: cyan;">Compact Digital Camera</span> <span style="font-size: small;">are designed to be tiny and portable for casual and Snapshot use. It is also known as <span style="color: #0b5394;">"Point And Shoot Cameras."</span> Compact Digital cameras have a unique design that is suitable for teenagers and young at heart that love taking pictures anywhere, Because it is "easy-to-use." The main purposed of of this camera is to capture events in a click away. Let's talk about its designs..... The smallest digitalcam is just about 20 mm in size. Well, people love this camera because they just insert in their pocket after they used it.... In my opinion, they are the easiest camera to be used to capture moments.</span></span><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-size: small;"> Let's now go to the best-friend of all photographers------</span></span><span style="color: cyan; font-size: x-large;">Digital Single-Lens Reflex Camera</span><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-size: small;">. It is a camera based on the Single Reflex Lense principle uses a mirror to show in the viewfinder the image that will be captured by the camera. Digitalcams can be put in your pockets on the other hand Dslr cannot, they must be put in their cases that are intended to keep them safe because Dslr have delicate parts.</span></span><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-size: small;"> If we compare Dslr and DigitalCams in terms of their ability to capture good and high quality here it is:</span></span><br />
<ul style="color: blue;"><li><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-size: small;">DSLR's could capture High definition images than the Digital Cameras.</span></span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-size: small;">DigitalCams' have unique designs but DSLR's don't have.</span></span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-size: small;">DSLR's can be focused manually, Digital Cameras have auto-focus</span></span></li>
</ul><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-size: small;">It is your decision to choose what camera you will use. Just remember to take care it always... </span></span> Thank you for reading my Blog... See you next time... Have a nice day!!! <br />
John Michael Acehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16447213303343013873noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1050591295065099165.post-70072920588188957762011-10-17T18:50:00.000-07:002011-10-17T18:50:03.175-07:00Welcome to the World of Digital Photography!Memories are one of the most important things that people would not forget. Memories such when you had a date with your love one, when you had your first anniversary; it is important to remember these happy moments not just about thinking but through pictures....<br />
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<a name='more'></a>Nowadays, important events such as birthdays, weddings and etc. are can be remembered always through highly advanced cameras. Cameras that can take million smiles in just one click. A camera that could bring back events that are already finished...............that is Advance Camera...<br />
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That is the purpose of my blog to bring you the latest and highly advance camera that are low cost and affordable...<br />
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Have a Nice Day.....John Michael Acehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16447213303343013873noreply@blogger.com0